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竹影无风 2004-02-13 18:10

张翔:掌握英语口语--《特级口语教程》

1: Effective Introduction

 INTRODUCTION FUNCTIONS

  A good introduction performs three functions. First, it captures the audience’s attention and arouses curiosity. Second, it previews the major ideas of your speech. Third, it tells your audience why they should listen to you.

  1. Attentioncatching Opening Line

  A key purpose of the introduction is to acquire favorable attention of the audience. Because listeners form their first impressions of the speech quickly, if the introduction does not capture their attention, the rest of the speech may be wasted on them.

  Example:

  Imagine for a moment that it is year 2050. You are 65 years old. You’ve just picked up your mail and opened an envelope that contains a check for 100,000! No, you didn’t win the lottery. You smile as you realize your own modest investment strategy over the last forty years has paid off handsomely.

  2. Preview Major Ideas

  Within a couple of seconds after you begin your speech, the audience should have a pretty good idea of what you are going to talk about. Do not get so carried away with jokes or illustrations that you forget the basic purpose.

  Example:

  Today I’d like to answer three questions that can help you become a better money manager: First,swheresdoes money come from? Second,swheresdo you invest it? And third, how does a little money growsintosa lot of money?

  3. Tell Your Audience Why They Should Listen to You

  Even after you have captured the attention of your audience and told the topic, you have to give the audience some reason to want to listen to the rest of your speech.

  Example:

  Knowing the answers to these three questions can literally pay big dividends for you. With only modest investments and a well-disciplined attitude, you could easily have 100,000.

 

 INTRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

  The introduction to your speech will span only a few sentences or, for a longer speech, a few paragraphs. How can you effectively capture attention, present your topic, establish credibility, and preview your major points in just a few minutes? Try one of these six tried-and-true techniques: (1) using a startling statement, (2) asking a question, (3) using humor, (4) using suspense, (5) telling a story, (6) establishing credibility. Not every one of these techniques is appropriate for every speech or occasion. However, among these six techniques, you’re sure to find at least one that will work well for your next speech.

  1. Using a Starling Statement

  If you want your audience to snap to attention immediately, start your introduction with a startling statement. You might describe an extremely unusual situation, reveal a shocking statistic, or vividly portray an alarming problem. Not only will listeners sit up and take notice, they’ll also listen carefully to find out more about what you just said and why you said it.

  When student Heather Larson of Northern State University in South Dakota wrote her speech“Stemming the Tide,”she used a series of startling statements to draw her audience instantlysintosher message.

  Example:

  Every eleven minutes one American dies from this killer. That is twice as many as will be murdered in crimes of homicide. It took eight years of Vietnam to exceed the 46,000 that will die this year. Three times as many Americans have died of this disease in the last decade than the 133,000 who died of AIDS. This disease will cost you and me and other Americans over 6 billion in medical costs and lost productivity this year alone, not to mention the human losses we will suffer. This tide awash on our shores may well directly touch each and every one of us in this room. I speak of breast cancer.

  2. Asking a Question

  You can get listeners involved in your introduction by asking a question that leadssintosyour central idea.

  Example:

  See this dollar bill? What can it do for you? You can invest it, save it to buy something more expensive, or you can just spend it. Although there isnt much to buy for a dollar these days. Kids, on the other hand, would take this dollar and be able to spend it on something that they would be satisfied with, even if what they were spending it on could kill them. This dollar can buy kids a high that’s cheap, available, and lethal to purchase.

  Clearly, Wadeson did’t want her listeners to actually respond. What she wanted was to get them thinking about her topic, the dangers of inhaling solvents and aerosols.

  3. Using Humor

  Humor, handled well, can be a wonderful attention getter. It can help relax your audience and win their good will for the rest of the speech.

  The following speaker used humor to express appreciation for being invited to speak to asgroupsby beginning his speech with his story.

  Example:

  Three corporate executive were trying to define the word“fame”.

  One said,“Fame is getting invited to the White House to see the President.”

  The second said,“Fame is being invited to the White House and while you are visting, the phone rings and he doesn’t answer it.”

  The third executive said,“Your both wrong. Fame is being invited to the White House to visit with the President when his Hot Line ring. He answers it, listens a minute, and then says,‘Here, it’s for you!’”

  Being asked to speak today is like being in the White House and the call’s for me.

  4. Using Suspense

  Consider how Rebecca Witte, a student at the University of Missouri in St. Louis, introduced a speech to a college audience.

  Example:

  I am a seven letter word. I destroy friends, families, neighborhoods and schools. I am the biggest killer among teenagers today. I am not alcohol. I am not cocaine. I am suicide.

  Witte’s introduction aroused curiosity and encouraged listeners to stay tuned for the answer. Then, to keep listeners involved, Witte cited a few surprising statistics and went on to pose two thought-provoking questions:

  Example:

  Why is it then that the high schools aren’t doing anything? Why is it that high schools do not have mandatory suicide prevention programs as a part of their everyday curriculum? Those are very good questions and that is why I am here today.

  Initially, Witte’s introduction intrigued her listeners and therefore captured their attention for a minute or two. But Witte had to do more to keep her audience interested after the first few sentences. By quoting statistics and asking questions, she gave her audience solid reasons for staying interested.

  5. Telling a Story

  Everybody likes a good story, so long as it relates to the topic at hand. Stories can be effective in leading off any kind of speech.

  A college student used this story to introduce his speech,“Health Care Combat Zones”.

  Example:

  California emergency room nurse Tim Dufelmeier became a hero - not because of his successful efforts to save a patient, but because of his valiant rescue of an emergency room physician. A disgruntled patient had lunged at three ER physicians without warning, wounding two slightly and shooting one point-blank in the head and chest. Dufelmeier charged past the gunman, grabbed the doctor and rushed him to emergency life-saving surgery.

  6. Establishing Credibility

  The reason why the audience listens to you is closely related to how credible you are. You need your listener to know that you are qualified to stand there and tackle the topic.

  When John F. Ferguson, a minister, spoke during a VeteransDay assembly at a high school in Kirkland, Washington, he stated his credentials during his introduction.

  Example:

  We have come together to honor the military service of American men and women, particularly those who participated in the war in Vietnam. I’m one of those people. I served in the United States Marine Corps in Vietnam in 1967. I was a member of the 15th Marine Counterintelligence Team, operating just below the Demilitarized Zone. Our team was a part of small unit combat and intelligence operations, now known as the Phoenix Program.

  Ferguson let his audience know that he was personally involved in the war. He didn’t brag or boast; he simply explained what his wartime role was. His experience was directly relevant to the topic of war veterans and to the purpose of the school’s assembly to honor veterans, so he seemed more credible to the audience.

竹影无风 2004-02-13 18:11
第一章: 生动有力的开场白

 开场白的作用

  一段精彩的开场白有三种作用。第一,吸引听众的注意力,激发听众的好奇心;第二,概述你演讲的主要内容;第三,向听众阐明听你演讲的必要性。

  1.引人入胜的开头

  开场白的主要目的就是赢得听众的注意。由于听众对演讲的第一印象会很快形成,如果开场白不能吸引他们,那么其他部分就只会白白浪费掉了。举例:

  想像一下现在是2050年。你已经65岁了。你刚刚收到一封来信,打开信封,里面是一张10万美元的支票。不,不是你赢什么彩票。当意识到在过去的40年中自己的少量投资的策略现在终于有了可观的收益时,你不禁喜上眉头。

  2.概述要点

  在开始演讲后的几秒钟内,听众应该对你要谈到的内容有一个很好的了解。不要因为讲了几个笑话或例证导致离题万里,而把根本目标抛到了脑后。

  举例:

  今天我来回答三个问题,这三个问题有助于你理财。第一,你如何挣钱?第二,你如何投资?第三,小钱如何生大钱?

  3.向你的听众阐明听你演讲的理由

  即便你已经抓住了听众的注意力,也阐明了演讲的话题,你也必须告诉听众为什么要接着听下去。

  举例:

  弄清这三个问题的答案的确可以带来意外的收益。你只需要很少的投资,严谨的态度,挣得10万美元不在话下。

  开场白的技巧

  演讲的开场白只要几句话就行,长一点的演讲则需几段。如何在几分钟内有效地做到吸引听众,引出话题,建立信任,介绍要点呢?下面这六个技巧屡试不爽,不妨一试:(1)语出惊人;(2)提出问题;(3)利用幽默;(4)设置悬念;(5)讲述故事;(6)建立信任。这些技巧并非每一条都适用于任何演讲、任何场合。然而,在这些技巧中,你肯定至少会找到一条能在你下次演讲中大显身手。

  1.语出惊人

  如果你想迅速吸引你的听众,那么开场白一开始就要语出惊人。你可能会描绘一个异乎寻常的场面,透露一个触目惊心的数据,或者栩栩如生描述一个耸人听闻的问题。听众不仅会蓦然凝神,而且还会侧耳细听,更多地寻求你的讲话内容,探询你演讲的原因。

  南达科他州北部州立大学的希瑟·拉森在撰写她的演讲词“逆流而行”时,运用了一系列的惊人之语,迅速地把她的听众吸引了过来。

  举例:

  每11分钟就有一个美国人死于这种病。这个数量是死于谋杀犯罪案人数的两倍。今年有4.6万人死于这种病,而8年越南战争的死亡人数也不过是这个数字。在近十年里,美国人死于这种病的人数是死于艾滋病13.3万人数的三倍。这种病将使你我和其他美国人今年在医疗费用上花费掉超过60亿美元,并失去劳动能力,更不用说我们所遭受到的生命损失了。我所说的患乳腺癌这种疾病的浪潮可能会直接袭击我们在座的每一个人。

  2.提出问题

  你可以通过提出与中心思想相关的问题来使听众投入于你的开场白。

  举例:

  看到这张美钞吗?它对你有什么用呢?你可以用它来投资,可以省下来买更贵的物品,或者干脆花掉。虽然现今1美元买不了多少东西,但另一方面,孩子们可以用这1美元去买他们喜欢的东西,即便是他们买来的东西会伤害他们。这1美元可以让孩子们廉价地、随处可得地,但非常致命地“爽”一把。

  很显然,威德森不想让她的听众真的来回答她的问题。她只想引发他们对她的话题--吸入溶剂和气溶胶的危险--进行思考。

  3.利用幽默

  幽默如果运用得恰当,在吸引听众注意力上能取到很好的效果。它有助于缓和现场气氛,使他们愿意继续听你的演讲。

  下例演讲者以幽默的语气用他自己的故事作开场白,来表达他对被邀请作演讲的感谢。

  举例:

  三位公司主管试图给“名声”这个词下个定义。

  第一个说:“名声就是白宫邀请你去与总统会面。”

  第二个说:“名声就是白宫给你发出邀请,当你在那儿时,电话响了,但是总统却不接。”

  第三个主管说:“你们俩说的都不对。名声就是你被邀请到白宫拜见总统,这时总统的热线电话响了,他接过来,听了听,然后说:‘找你的!’”

  今天我应邀在这里演讲就如同在白宫有电话找我。

  4.设置悬念

  丽贝卡·威特就读于圣路易斯州的密苏里大学,她曾给大学生做过演讲,看看她是如何开场的。

  举例:

  我是一个由七个字母构成的单词。我破坏了友情、亲情、邻里之情、同学之情。我是当今青少年中最大的杀手。我并非酒类,也并非可卡因,我的名字叫自杀。

  威特的开场白激起了听众的好奇心,促使他们继续听下去以便找到答案。于是,为了保持听众的兴趣,威特引用了一些触目惊心的统计数据,又提出了两个令人深思的问题。

  举例:

  为什么高级中学没有采取措施呢?作为日常课程的组成部分,为什么高级中学缺少强制性的自杀防范纲要?这些问题都很重要。这也正是我今天在这里做演讲的原因。

  起初,威特的开场白激起了听众的兴趣,因此,在一两分钟内就吸引住了他们。但是在头两句话之后仍旧保持听众的兴趣,威特就必须继续努力。通过引用数据,提出问题,她确保了她的听众兴致不减。

  5.讲述故事

  只要与你演讲的主题相关,动人的故事人人都会喜欢。不论哪种类型的演讲,以故事开篇都会给人留下深刻的印象。

  一位大学生用下面这个故事开始了他的演讲:“卫生保健的斗争领域”。

  举例:

  加利福尼亚急诊护士提姆·杜非弥尔成了一位英雄,不是因为他成功地抢救了一位病人,而是因为他勇敢地营救了一位急诊医生。一个不满的患者在没有任何征兆的情况下枪击三位急诊科医生,造成两人轻微受伤,一人中弹--正中头部和胸部。杜非弥尔猛扑向持枪者,救出了重伤的医生,迅速送往急诊手术室。

  6.建立信任

  听众之所以倾听你的演讲与你可信度密切相关。你得让你的听众明白:你有资格站在这里阐述这个话题。

  约翰·F·富格逊部长在华盛顿Kirkland的一所中学举行的老兵节集会上讲话时,他在开场白中获得了听众对自己的信任。

  举例:

  我们齐聚一堂,向服过兵役的美国男人和女人,尤其是那些参加过越战的老兵,表示敬意。我是他们中的一员。1967年我在美国海军陆战队中服役。我是反间谍第15组的成员,就在非武装区之外活动。我们组是情报军事行动部队的一小部分,现在叫做凤凰计划。

  约翰·F·富格逊向听众说明他曾亲自参加了越战。他并没有自吹自擂,夸大其辞;他只阐明了他那时的任务是什么。他的经历与战争老兵的主题以及学校集会的目的直接相关。因此,对听众来说,他似乎显得更为可信。

竹影无风 2004-03-25 19:06
2: Effective Body Writing

 TOPICS SELECTION

  You can choose and determine your topics by asking strategic questions. To see how this works in detail, imagine that you are giving a speech to asgroupsof high school students on the values of a college education. Your thesis is:“A college education is valuable.”You then ask,“Why is it valuable?”From this question and generate as many answers as possible, without evaluating them. You may come up with answers such as the following:

  1. It helps you get a good job.

  2. It increases your earning potential.

  3. It gives you greater job mobility.

  4. It helps you secure more creative work.

  5. It helps you to appreciate the arts more fully.

  6. It helps you to understand an extremely complex world.

  7. It helps you understand different cultures.

  8. It allows you to avoid taking a regular job for a few years.

  9. It helps you meet lots of people and make new friends.

  10. It helps you increase your personal effectiveness.

  There are, of course, other possibilities, but for purposes of illustration, these 10 possible main points will suffice. But not all 10 are equally valuable or relevant to your audience, so you should look over the list to see how to make it shorter and more meaningful. Try these suggestions:

  1. Eliminate those points that seem least important to your thesis. On this basis you might want to eliminate No. 8 since this seems least consistent with your intended emphasis on the positive values of college.

  2. Combine those points that have a common focus. Notice, for example, that the first four points all center on the values of college in terms of jobs. You might, therefore, consider grouping these four itemssintosone proposition: A college education helps you get a good job.

  This point might be one of the major propositions that could be developed by defining what you mean by a“good job.”This main point or proposition and its elaboration might look like this:

  Ⅰ. A college education helps you get a good job.

  A. College graduates earn higher salaries.

  B. College graduates enter more creative jobs.

  C. College graduates have greater job mobility.

  Note that A, B, and C are all aspects or subdivisions of a“good job.”

  3. Select points that are most relevant to or that interest your audience. On this basis you might eliminate No. 5 and No. 7 on the assumption that the audience will not see learning about the arts or different cultures as exciting or valuable at the present time. You might also decide that high school students would be more interested in increasing personal effectiveness, so you might select No. 10 for inclusion as a second major proposition: A college education increases your personal effectiveness.

  Earlier you developed the subordinate points in your first proposition (the A, B, and C of I) by defining more clearly what you meant by a“good job.”Follow the same process here by defining what you mean by“personal effectiveness.”It might look something like this:

  Ⅱ. A college education helps increase your personal effectiveness.

  A. A college education helps you improve your ability to communicate.

  B. A college education helps you acquire the skills for learning how to think.

  C. A college education helps you acquire coping skills.

  Follow the same procedure you used to generate the subordinate points (A, B, and C) to develop the subheading under A, B, and C. For example, point A might be dividedsintostwo major subheads:

  A. A college education helps improve your ability to communicate.

  a. College improves your writing skills.

  b. College improves your speech skills.

  Develop points B and C in essentially the same way by defining more clearly (in B) what you mean by“learning how to think”and (in C) what you mean by“coping skills.”

  The body of a speech contains three or four sections related to the topic. It includes an outline of the major ideas, and it also has information that supports and clarifies those ideas. In the same way as clarified in the previous example, you can organize some topics like the following first.

  Example:

  Speech Entitled“Having a Happy Marriage”

  Choose the best honeymoon vacation.

  Discuss important financial matters together.

  Be courteous to each other.

  Learn to compromise.

  Bring up your children well.

  Respect your spouse’s property.

  Buy a nice home together.

  Example:

  Speech Entitled“Applying for a Job”

  Choose an appropriate wardrobe.

  Behave appropriately during the personal interview.

  Write a résumé.

  Find the desired position.

  Schedule appointments.

  Get a flexible work schedule.

  Learn new skills.

  Second, narrow your list subtopics. Review your list and select the three or four subtopics that will best develop your speech in the time allowed. These subtopics will become the main headings of your speech.

  Example:

  Speech Entitled“Having a Happy Marriage”

  Discuss important financial matters together.

  Be courteous to each other.

  Learn to compromise.

  Respect your spouse’s property.

  Example:

  Speech Entitled“Applying for a Job”

  Behave appropriately during the personal interview.

  Write a résumé.

  Find the desired position.

  Schedule appointments.

  Third,sgroupsyour subtopics logically so that one leads naturallysintosthe next one.

  Example:

  Speech Entitled“Having a Happy Marriage”

  Respect your spouse’s property.

  Be courteous to each other.

  Discuss important financial matters together.

  Learn to compromise.

  Example:

  Speech Entitled“Applying for a Job”

  Find the desired position.

  Write a résumé.

  Schedule appointments.

  Behave appropriately during the personal interview.

  Fourth, develop your subtopics with factual information, logical proof, and visual aids. If your subtopics are supported and well-organized, your sections will be interesting and your listeners will better understand and remember your speech.

  

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS

  Once you have identified the major propositions you wish to include in your speech, you need to devote attention to how you will arrange these propositions in the body of your speech. When you follow a clearly identified organizational pattern, your listeners will be able to see your speech as a whole and will be able to see more clearly the connections and relationships among your various pieces of information. Should they have a momentary lapse in attention - as they surely will at some point in just about every speech - they will be able to refocus their attention and not lose your entire train of thought.

  1. Temporal Pattern

  Organizing your propositions on the basis of some temporal (time) relationship is a popular and easy-to-use organizational pattern. It is also a pattern that listeners will find easy to follow. Generally, when you use this pattern, you organize your speechsintostwo, three, or four major parts, beginning with the past and working up to the present or the future, or beginning with the present or the future and working back to the past.

  The temporal (sometimes called“chronological”) pattern is especially appropriate for informative speeches in which you wish to describe events or processes that occur over time. It is also useful when you wish to demonstrate how something works or how to do something.

  A speech on the development of language in the child might be organized in a temporal pattern and could be divided something like this:

  The Development of Language

  Ⅰ. Babbling occurs around the fifth month.

  Ⅱ. Lallation occurs around the sixth month.

  Ⅲ. Echolalia occurs around the ninth month.

  Ⅳ.“Communication”occurs around the twelfth month.

  Here you would cover each of the events in a time sequence beginning with the earliest stage and working up to the final stage - in this case the stage of true communication.

  Most historical topics lend themselves to organization by time. The events leading up to the Civil War, the steps toward a college education, or the history of writing would all be appropriate for temporal patterning. A time pattern would also be appropriate in describing the essential steps in a multistep process in which temporalsgroupsis especially important. The steps involved in making interpersonal contact with another person might look something like this:

  Making Interpersonal Contact

  Ⅰ. Spot the person you want to make contact with.

  Ⅱ. Make eye contact.

  Ⅲ. Give some positive nonverbal sign.

  Ⅳ. Make verbal contact.

  2. Spatial Pattern

  You can also organize your main points on the basis of space. This pattern is especially useful when you wish to describe objects or places. Like the temporal pattern, it is an organizational pattern that listeners will find easy to follow as you progress, from top to bottom, left to right, inside to outside, or from east to west, for example.

  Geographical topics generally fit wellsintosorganization by spatial patterning. For example, for a speech on places to visit in southern Europe, you might go from west to east, considering the countries to visit and, within these countries, the cities. The main heading of such a speech might look like this:

  Touring Southern Europe

  Ⅰ. Your first stop is Portugal.

  Ⅱ. Your second stop is Spain.

  Ⅲ. Your third stop is Italy.

  Ⅳ. Your fourth stop is Greece.

  Similarly, the structure of a place, object, or even animal is easily placedsintosa spatial pattern. You might describe the layout of a hospital, school, skyscraper, or perhaps even the structure of a dinosaur with a spatial pattern of organization.

  3. Topical Pattern

  Perhaps the most popular pattern for organizing informative speeches is the topical pattern. When your topic conveniently divides itselfsintossubdivisions, each of which is clear and approximately equal in importance, this pattern is most useful. It is not, however, a catch-all category for topics that do not seem to fitsintosany of the other patterns. Rather, this pattern should be regarded as one appropriate to the particular topic being considered. For example, the topical pattern is an obvious one for organizing a speech on the powers of the government. Here the divisions are clear.

  The Powers of Government

  Ⅰ. The legislative branch is controlled by Congress.

  Ⅱ. The executive branch is controlled by the President.

  Ⅲ. The judicial branch is controlled by the courts.

  Note that the topic itself, the powers of the government, divides itselfsintosthree parts: legislative, executive and judicial. It remains for you to organize your various materials under these three logical headings.

  A speech on the forms of communication would most likely be organized around a topical pattern. It would look something like this:

  Forms of Communication

  Ⅰ. Interpersonal communication occurs within oneself.

  Ⅱ. Interpersonal communication occurs between two people.

  Ⅲ. Public communication occurs between speaker and audience.

  Ⅳ. Mass communication occurs through some audio or visual transmitter.

  A speech on important cities of the world might be organizedsintosa topical pattern, as might speeches on problems facing the college graduate, great works of literature, the world’s major religions, and the like. Each of these topics would have several subtopics or divisions of approximately equal importance; consequently, a topical pattern seems most appropriate.

  4. Problem-Solution Pattern

  The problem-solution pattern is especially useful in persuasive speechesswheresyou want to convince the audience that a problem exists and that your solution would solve or alleviate the problem.

  Let’s say you are attempting to persuade an audience that teachers should be given higher salaries and increased benefits. Here a problem-solution pattern might be appropriate. You might, for example, discuss in the first part of the speech the problems confronting contemporary education such as (1) industry lures away the most highly qualified graduates, (2) many excellent teachers leave the field after two or three years, and (3) teaching is currently a low-status occupation.

  In the second part of your speech you might consider the possible solutions that you wish your audience to accept. These might include, for example: (1) salaries for teachers must be made competitive with salaries offered by private industry, and (2) the benefits teachers receive must be made as attractive as those offered by industry. Your speech, in outline form, might look like this:

  Ⅰ. Three major problems confront elementary education.

  A. Industry lures away the most qualified graduates.

  B. Numerous excellent teachers leave the field after two or three years.

  C. Teaching is currently a lowstatus occupation.

  Ⅱ. Two major solutions to these problems exist.

  A. Salaries for teachers should be increased.

  B. Benefits for teachers should be made more attractive.

  5. Cause-Effect/Effect-Cause Pattern

  Similar to problem-solution pattern is the cause-effect or effect-cause pattern. This pattern is useful in persuasive speeches in which you want to convince your audience of the causal connection existing between two events or two element. In the cause-effect pattern you divide the speechsintostwo major sections, causes and effects.

  For example, a speech on the reasons for highway accidents or birth defects might lend itself to a cause-effect pattern. Here you might first consider, say, the causes of highway accidents or birth defects and then some of the effects, for example, the number of deaths, the number of accidents, and so on.

  A speech on hypertension, designed to spell out some of the causes and effects, might look like this:

  Ⅰ. There are three main causes of hypertension.

  A. High salt intake increases blood pressure.

  B. Excess weight increases blood pressure.

  C. Anxiety increases blood pressure.

  Ⅱ. There are three major effects of hypertension.

  A. Nervousness increases.

  B. Heart rate increases.

  C. Shortness of breath increases.

 

 LANGUAGE

  1. Using Explanations

  Explanation is the act or process of making something plain or comprehensible. It is often accomplished by a simple, concise exposition that sets forth the relation between a whole and its parts. For instance:

  A state is one of the internally autonomous political units composing a federation under a sovereign government; for example, New York, Montana, and Alaska are states within the United States.

  Explanation is also accomplished by providing a definition. This alternative can take a variety of forms:

  ●Providing a dictionary definition (which typically involves placing the construct to be defined in a category and then explaining the features that distinguish this construct from all other members of the category - e.g.,“Primary means‘first in time, order, or importance”)

  ●Using synonyms (words with approximately the same meaning - e.g.,“Mawkish as an adjective indicates that someone or something is sentimental, maudlin, or gushy”) and/or antonyms (words that have opposite meanings)

  ●Using comparisons (showing listeners the similarities between something unfamiliar and something familiar) and contrasts (supporting an idea by emphasizing the differences between two constructs)

  ●Providing an operational definition (defining a process by describing the steps involved in that process - e.g.,“To create calligraphy, you begin with a wide-nibbed pen...”)

  To be effective, explanations must be framed within the experiences of members of the audience and cannot be too long or abstract.

  2. Using Examples

  Examples serve as an illustration, a model, or an instance of what is to be explained. They can either be developed in detail (an illustration) or presented in abbreviated, undeveloped fashion ( a specific instance). An illustration - an extended example presented in narrative form - can be either hypothetical (a story that could but did not happen) or factual (a story that did happen). For example, a presenter might involve the listeners in a hypothetical illustration by suggesting,“Imagine yourself getting ready to give a speech. You reachsintosyour bag for the manuscript that you carefully prepared over the course of the past week. It isn’t there! You madly search through everything in the bag.”Whether hypothetical or factual, the illustration should be relevant and appropriate to the audience, typical rather than exceptional, and vivid and impressive in detail.

  A specific instance is an undeveloped or condensed illustration or example. Therefore, it requires listeners to recognize the names, events, or situations in the instance. If a presenter, for example, uses“President Dewey”as a specific illustration of the dangers of poor sampling techniques when engaged in public opinion polling, and the audience has never heard of Thomas Dewey (Harry Truman’s Republican opponent in the 1948 presidential election), this specific instance will not be an effective way of making the point clear and vivid.

  3. Using Statistics

  As a form of supporting material, statistics are used to describe the end result of collecting, organizing, and interpreting numerical data.

  When using statistics, you should be aware of two basic concerns: (1) Are the statistics accurate and unbiased? (2) Are they clear and meaningful? Addressing the first issue involves responses to such questions as: Are the statistical techniques appropriate and are they appropriately used? Do the statistics cover enough cases and length of time? Although you may not have the expertise to answer such questions, you can ask about the credibility of the source of the statistics. Do you have any reason to believe that the person orsgroupsfrom whom you got the statistics might be biased? Are these statistics consistent with other things you know about the situation? Addressing the second issue involves more pragmatic considerations: Can you translate difficult-to-comprehend numberssintosmore immediately understandable terms? How, for example, might you make the difference between 400,000 and 400 million more vivid? How can you provide adequate context for the data? Is it fair, for example, to compare 1960 dollars with 1992 dollars? Could a graph or visual aid clarify the data and statistical trends? As we will see shortly, supplementing a verbal presentation with a visual aid can greatly increase comprehension and retention.

竹影无风 2004-03-25 19:07
第二章: 有效正文写作
 

 主题选择

  你可以通过提出一些关键性的问题来选择并确定你的主题。为了弄清详细的操作方法,不妨想像你正在给一批中学生做有关大学教育的意义的演讲。你的论题是:“大学教育意义重大。”那么你可以提出:“为什么其意义重大?”通过对这个问题的回答,找出尽可能多的答案,但不需要做出评价。你可能会想出下面这些答案:

  1.有助于你找个好工作。

  2.提高你将来赚钱的能力。

  3.提高你将来工作的机动灵活性。

  4.有助于你找到一个更具创造性的工作。

  5.有助于你更充分地欣赏艺术。

  6.有助于你认识极其复杂的世界。

  7.有助于你了解不同的文化。

  8.你可以不必几年如一日地循规蹈矩地工作。

  9.有助于你扩大社交范围,广交朋友。

  10.有助于你提高个人效率。

  当然,还会有其他答案,但是就例证而言,这十个要点足够了。但是,对你的听众来说这十点并非都有意义,因此你应该快速地浏览一遍这些要点,看看如何对其进行删减,使其更有意义。下面这些方法可以一试:

  1.删除那些对你的中心思想意义不大的要点。根据这个原则,你可能会删除第8点,这一点似乎与你要重点论述的大学教育的积极意义关系不大。

  2.把意义相近的观点联合起来。比如,你注意到,头四个要点全是关于大学教育在就业方面的意义。因此,你可以考虑把这四点归为一组,形成一个论点:大学教育有助于找到理想工作。

  这一论点可以作为主要论点的一个分论点,而这些分论点可以通过界定你所指的“理想工作”而展开。该论点及其阐述可以这样:

  Ⅰ.大学教育有助于找到理想的工作。

  A.大学毕业生的薪水较高。

  B.大学毕业生可以找到更赋有创造性的工作。

  C.大学毕业生可以经常调换工作。

  注意:A、B、C都是“理想工作”的不同方面。

  3.选择与听众关系最为密切、能引起他们兴趣的要点。根据这一原则,考虑到目前听众不会视了解艺术或不同文化为激动人心或有意义的事,你可能会删除第5点和第7点。你可能会断定高中生对提高个人效率会更感兴趣,因此而选择第10点作为另一个主要论点:大学教育可以提高你的个人效率。

  在前面,在第一个论点中你通过明白晓畅地界定“理想工作”来展开分论点。现在再老调重弹,界定这里你所说的“个人效率”。可以这样:

  Ⅱ.大学教育可以提高你的个人效率。

  A.大学教育有助于增强你的交际能力。

  B.大学教育有助于你获得学会如何思考的技能。

  C.大学教育有助于你获得合作技能。

  还是按照你先前的程序,拟出分论点(A、B、C),在A、B、C下展开小标题。比如,论点A可以分成两个主小标题:

  A.大学教育有助于增强你的交际能力。

  a.大学可以提高你的写作技能。

  b.大学可以提高你的演讲技能。

  按照同样的方法,给“学会如何思考”和“合作技能”下一个清楚的定义,把论点B和论点C展开。

  演讲的正文包括三个或者四个部分,这些部分都与主题有关。它包括一个要点提纲,还包括支撑和阐明这些要点的信息。按照前面例子的阐明方法,首先你可以像下面这样组织话题。

  举例:

  题为“拥有幸福的婚姻”的演讲

  选择最佳的蜜月假期

  共同商讨重要的财政问题

  相敬如宾

  学会让步

  抚养好子女

  尊重配偶的财产

  共同购置温馨家园

  举例:

  题为“申请职位”的演讲

  选择得体的服饰

  面试时举止得体

  撰写个人简历

  找到理想的职位

  安排约会

  制订一份灵活的时间表

  学习新的技能

  第二,减少你的副题。检查你的提纲,选出三到四个能在允许的时间使你的演讲充分展开的副题。这些副题就成为你演讲的主要标题。

  举例:

  题为“拥有幸福婚姻”的演讲

  共同商讨重要的财政问题

  相敬如宾

  学会让步

  尊重配偶的财产

  举例:

  题为“申请职位”的演讲

  面试时举止得体

  撰写个人简历

  找到理想的职位

  安排约会

  第三,按照逻辑排列副题,以便一个副题可以自然而然转入下一个副题。

  举例:

  题为“拥有幸福婚姻”的演讲

  尊重配偶的财产

  相敬如宾

  共同商讨重要财政问题

  学会让步

  举例:

  题为“申请职位”的演讲

  找到理想的职位

  撰写个人简历

  安排约会

  面试时举止得体

  第四,用事实、合乎逻辑的证明、形象的手段展开你的副主题。只有副主题得到充分的证明和完善的组织,你的演讲才会趣味盎然,听众才能理解透彻,印象深刻。

 

 组织模式

  一旦你确定了演讲的主题,你就需要集中精力搞好这些主题在正文中的布局。如果你按照脉络清晰的组织模式来组织,听众会感到你的演讲浑然一体,就能够清楚地感受到你所提供的各种信息之间的相互关系。如果他们一时走神--这种情形几乎在任何演讲中都会出现--他们也能够在回过神来时跟上你的思路。

  1.时间关系模式

  按照一定的时间关系组织主题是一种流行的简单易学的组织模式,同时也是一种听众易于接受的组织模式。一般来说,如果采用这种结构,你需要把你的演讲分成两个、三个或者四个大的部分来组织,从过去说起,再到现在,直到将来,也可以从现在或者将来说起,再返回到过去。

  时间关系模式特别适合于告知性的演讲。在这种演讲中,你一般希望按照时间发展顺序来描述一些事件或过程。如果你想展示某种事物的存在状态,或者如何做某件事,这一模式也非常适用。

  用时间关系模式组织一个关于儿童语言发展的演讲,可以分成这样几个部分:语言的发展

  Ⅰ.第五个月开始发出咿咿呀呀的声音。

  Ⅱ.第六个月开始发出喃喃之语。

  Ⅲ.第九个月开始学着模仿说话。

  Ⅳ.大致一年后开始“交流”。

  这里你可以从第一个阶段开始直到最后阶段--即真正的交流阶段--按照时间顺序囊括每件事。

  大多数与历史有关的话题都可以以时间顺序来组织。导致美国内战的事件、考入大学的过程或者历史著述都适于时间关系模式。这种模式还适于描写多重步骤过程的关键步骤,在这一过程中,时间顺序尤其重要。涉及人与人交往的步骤可能会是这样的:建立人际交往

  Ⅰ.发现你想接触的人。

  Ⅱ.目光接触。

  Ⅲ.发出某种积极的暗示。

  Ⅳ.语言接触。

  2.空间关系模式

  你可以按照空间关系组织要点。这种模式尤其适合于对物体或地方进行描述。与时间关系模式一样,这一模式的运用有助于听众跟上你的思路,比如,从上到下,从左到右,从里到外或从东到西。

  一般来说,地理类的主题特别适合按照空间关系模式进行组织。比如,做一个有关游览南欧各地的演讲,你就可以按照由西往东的顺序,数着要游览的国家。主要标题可以这样写:

  游南欧

  Ⅰ.第一站是葡萄牙。

  Ⅱ.第二站是西班牙。

  Ⅲ.第三站是意大利。

  Ⅳ.第四站是希腊。

  同样,地方、物体甚至动物的结构都易于按照空间关系模式来写。你可以运用空间关系模式对一所医院、一所学校、一幢摩天大楼的布局,也许甚至是一只恐龙的结构,进行描述。

  3.主题模式

  也许主题模式是信息性演讲最为常见的模式。如果你的主题便于进行细分,而每一部分又一清二楚,意义基本相同的话,这种模式就再合适不过了。然而,对于难以归类的主题,这一模式并非万能。相反,它应是一种适合于经过反复思考的特殊主题的模式。比如,对组织一篇关于政府权力的演讲来说,主题模式显然是很合适的。因为其分工一清二楚。政府的权力

  Ⅰ.国会控制立法机关。

  Ⅱ.总统控制行政机关。

  Ⅲ.法院控制司法机关。

  注意,主题本身--政府的权力--就可以分成三个部分:立法、行政和司法。你要做的是在这三个合乎逻辑的标题下组织各种素材。

  如果演讲的内容是关于传播的形式,最有可能用主题模式来组织。可以这样:

  传播的形式Ⅰ.自我传播。

  Ⅱ.人与人之间的人际传播。

  Ⅲ.演讲者与听众之间的公共传播。

  Ⅳ.通过声音或画面传输的大众传播。

  一个关于世界重要城市的演讲可以用主题模式来组织,大学毕业生面临的问题、伟大的文学作品、世界主要宗教等,诸如此类的演讲都可以这样组织。这些主题每一个都可以分成几个意义相近的副主题;因此,主题模式似乎最为适合。

  4.问题-解决模式

  问题-解决模式特别适合于说服性演讲,这种演讲的目的在于使听众确信某一问题的存在,而你的方法可以解决或者减轻这个问题。

  比如,你想说服听众应该提高教师的工资和福利。问题-解决模式就比较合适。比如,在演讲的第一部分你可以讨论一下当今教育面临的问题,像(1)第二产业吸引了最优秀的毕业生,(2)很多优秀的教师工作两三年后就跳槽,(3)目前教书地位不高。

  在第二部分,你可以考虑说出你想让听众接受的可能的解决办法。比如,(1)教师的工资必须与私营企业的工资不相上下,(2)教师的福利必须与企业福利一样有吸引力。你的演讲提纲可以这样列:

  Ⅰ.基础教育面临的三大问题:

  A.企业吸引了最优秀的毕业生。

  B.很多优秀的教师工作两三年后就跳槽。

  C.目前教书地位不高。

  Ⅱ.问题的两个主要解决方法:

  A.应该提高教师的工资。

  B.应该增强教师福利的吸引力。

  5.原因-结果/结果-原因模式

  原因-结果/结果-原因模式与问题-解决模式相似。这一模式适用于说服性演讲,在这种演讲中你想让听众确信两件事情或两种因素之间存在着因果联系。运用原因-结果模式,你可以把演讲分成两大部分:原因和结果。

  比如,一个关于公路交通事故原因或出生缺陷原因的演讲就可以运用原因-结果模式。你首先要考虑公路交通事故或出生缺陷的起因,然后是其结果,比如,死亡人数、事故数,等等。

  旨在说明高血压起因和结果的演讲可以这样组织:

  Ⅰ.高血压的三大起因:A.盐摄入量过高导致血压升高。

  B.过度肥胖导致血压升高。

  C.焦虑导致血压升高。

  Ⅱ.高血压的三大影响:

  A.神经过敏加剧。

  B.心跳加速。

  C.呼吸困难。

 

 语言

  1.运用解释

  解释就是使事物通俗或易于理解的过程。这主要是通过简要的讲解整体与部分的关系来进行。比如:

  州就是指一个主权政府下的联盟组成的内部自治的政治单位;比如,纽约、蒙大拿、阿拉斯加都是美国境内的州。

  也可以用下定义来进行解释。下定义可以采取各种形式:

  ●查字典找定义(这主要是将概念归类定义,然后解释其区别于同类概念中其他概念的特征--比如,“根源的”意思是“时间上、次序上或重要性上是第一位的”)

  ●用同义词(大致意思相同的词--比如,作为形容词,“多愁善感”指的是某人或者某物感情用事、感情脆弱或者易动感情)或者反义词(意思相反的词)

  ●运用比较(向听众说明不熟悉的事物与相同事物之间的相似之处)和对照(着重强调两个概念之间的不同以说明一个观点)

  ●提供一个操作性的定义(通过描述过程中的步骤来给这个过程下定义,比如,“要写书法,你得从用大头笔开始……”)

  解释要想奏效,就不能超出听众的常识范围,也不能太长或者太抽象。

  2.运用事例

  事例是要解释的事物的一种说明、一种示范或一种实例。既可以把事例详细展开(具体实例),也可以简要地概述(简例)。具体实例--一种用叙述的方式展开的事例--既可以是假设的(可能发生但并未发生的故事),也可以是真实的(确实发生了的故事)。比如,一个演讲者可以这样将听众带入假设的描述:“想像你准备站起来做演讲。你把手伸进书包拿稿子,要知道这可是你花了一个星期的时间精心准备的演讲稿。天哪,不在!你发了疯似地把书包翻了个底朝天。”不管是虚构还是事实,你所做的描述要与听众有关,要适合于他们;要有代表性而非特殊性;要形象生动具体,给人以深刻印象。

  一个简例就是一个尚未展开或压缩了的例子。因此,这要求听众能搞清楚事例中的人名、事件或情况。比如,如果演讲者用“杜威总统”作为具体例子来说明忙于民意测验但缺乏取样技巧是危险的,可听众从未听说过汤姆斯·杜威(1948年总统大选中哈利·杜鲁门的共和党对手),那么这个实例就不能称之为论述清楚生动的有效方法。

  3.运用数据

  作为一种论据材料,数据是用来描述收集、组织、阐述数字的最终结果的。

  运用数据时,你应该具备两个基本的意识:(1)这些数据准确无误、客观可靠吗?(2)这些数据一目了然、具有价值吗?对第一个问题的重视涉及到对诸如此类问题的回答:统计手段是否合适?运用得是否恰当?这些数据在样本数量和时间跨度上是否足够有效?虽然你可能无力回答这类问题,但是,你可以向数据来源的可信性提出质疑。你能保证相信你的数据提供者不存在偏见吗?这些数据与你了解的情况一致吗?对第二个问题的重视涉及到更为实际的考虑:你是否能够把难于理解的数字解释得明白晓畅、一听就懂?比如,你用什么更为生动的方法把40万美元与4亿美元清楚地加以区分?你如何为这一数据提供充足的背景?比如,把1960年的美元数额与1992年的美元数额做对比是否公平?图表或视听手段的运用是否使数据和统计走向阐释得更为明确?简而言之,运用视听手段补口头演讲之不足可以使之通俗易懂,加深印象。

竹影无风 2004-03-27 20:17
3: Effective Conclusion

  CONCLUSION FUNCTIONS

  Your introduction creates an important first impression; your conclusion leaves an equally important final impression. A strong conclusion serves three purposes. First, it emphasizes the main idea in a memorable way. Second, it motivates the audience to act. And third, it provides closure to the whole speech.

  1. Emphasize the Main Idea

  The conclusions of a number of famous speeches are among the most memorable statements we have. For instance, General Douglas MacArthur concluded his farewell to the nation in these memorable words.

  Example:

  “Old soldiers never die; they just fade away.”And like the old soldier of that ballad, I now close my military career and just fade away - an old soldier who tried to do his duty as God gave him the light to see that duty. Good-bye.

  2. Motivate the Audience to Act

  Motivation is one of the necessary components in an effective conclusion. If your speech is informative, you may want the audience to think about the topic or to further research the topic. If your speech is persuasive, you may want your audience to take some kind of feasible action.

  In a speech on campus crime, the speaker concluded in the following words.

  Example:

  The vast majority of crimes that take place on college and university campuses are completely avoidable. By simply remembering that more and more people are falling victim to campus crime because many times they feel too safe and don’t take necessary precautions, you can keep yourself from becoming another in the growing list of victims of campus crime.

  3. Provide Closure

  A good conclusion provides a good sense of closure, letting the audience know that the speech has ended. You may achieve closure by referring to future events to take place. Notice how effectively John Silber uses this approach in a speech on higher education.

  Example:

  Each of these three issues has relevance not only for Americans but for any country seriously concerned about higher education and its relation to democracy. They are not the only issues of importance I have raised today, but they form a basis for further discussion. I am looking forward to a fruitful exchange of ideas in the panels that will follow.

  

CONCLUSION TECHNIQUES

  You can develop an effective, memorable conclusion by applying one of these six common techniques: (1)using a summary,(2)telling a story,(3)using a quotation,(4)referring to the introduction,(5)asking a question, or (6)appealing to action. Many of these techniques echo those used in introductions. If you use the same technique for you conclusion as for your introduction, your speech will seem balanced and symmetrical. However, you can also be quite effective if you open with one technique and close with another. Of course, as with introduction techniques, not every conclusion technique is right for every speech or occasion.

  1. Using a Summary

  When you use a summary to finish your speech, you help your audience remember your major points and central ideas.

  John summarized his speech on emissions tampering in an effective way, casting the summary as an expression of his fears about the problem and the actions that could solve those fears.

  Example:

  I’m frightened. Frightened that nothing I could say would encourage the 25 percent of emissions-tampering Americans to change their ways and correct the factors that cause their autos to pollute disproportionately. Frightened that the American public will not respond to a crucial issue unless the harms are both immediate and observable. Frightened that the EPA will once again prove very sympathetic to industry. Three simple steps will alleviate my fear: inspection, reduction in lead content, and, most importantly, awareness.

  2. Telling a Story

  A story makes an effective conclusion because it helps your listeners remember what your speech was about. This is a less direct technique than the summary, but it works well when you can connect a vivid or dramatic story with your central idea or topic. When audience members recall the story, they’ll also remember your message.

  Philip M. Burgess, president of the Center for the New West, concluded his commencement address to graduates of the University of Toledo in Ohio with a story. He spoke about Roger Bannister, the first person to run a mile in less than four minutes. After Bannister’s 1954 achievement, runner after runner followed in Bannister’s footsteps. Here’s how Burgess tied this story to his central idea.

  Example:

  Runners and coaches now believed in their objective. They now believed in themselves and gained confidence in their new methods of preparation and training. Armed with the knowledge that it could be done, they simply went out and did it - again ... and again ... and again–improving with each passing year. So that’s my message to you today. Defend your legacy of freedom. Believe in our society and its capacity to provide new opportunities for those willing to take risks and accommodate change. But most of all, believe in youself. Have confidence in your preparation and training. And then, go out there and do it again ... and again ... and again - improving with each passing year.

  3. Using a Quotation

  You can also conclude your speech with a quotation that’s appropriate for your central idea or topic. You can quote directly or you can paraphrase if you don’t want to include the entire quotation. In all cases, be sure to show your audience how the quotation or the person being quoted relates to your message.

  Consider how Meryl Irwin, a student at Concordia College in Minnesota, used a quotation to close her speech about the need for specialized emergency medical care for children.

  Example:

  You now know that children need specialized emergency care, and that the present system isn’t giving it to them. Through the solutions I presented, we can do our part to make sure that the children we care about don’t become just additional testimonials for reform. I’d like to leave you with the words of Dr. Richard Flyer as a reminder of why action is needed now. Dr. Flyer says,“The worst part about it is, after its all over, a child is dead. And the parents come up and thank the doctor. They say,‘We know you did everything you could.My head is exploding, because I know, too often, its not true.”

  4. Referring to the Introduction

  Another way to close your speech is by referring to your introduction in your conclusion. This technique brings your listeners full circle, ending your speechswheresyou began. In the process, you show your listeners how the major points you made in the body of your speech connect with what you said in your introduction.

  You have already seen how student Gretchen Richter used a story to introduce her speech,“Health Care Combat Zones.”Now look at how she referred to her introduction during her conclusion.

  Example:

  Tim Dufelmeier’s heroic act in the California emergency room produced some healthy outcomes. All three wounded physicians will make full recoveries. Security in the emergency room has been upgraded by installing a wall of bullet-proof glass and card-key systems to restrict access. Assault in the medical arena is something we all need to combat. After all, the only thrills we need in the hospital are the life-saving efforts of our doctors and nurses.

  5. Asking a Question

  Just as you can ask a question to arouse your listeners- curiosity at the start of your speech, you can leave your audience with a question at the end of speech. This is a common way to end a persuasive speech, but it can be equally effective for informative, entertaining, or motivational speeches. By using a question in a persuasive speech, you help prod your audience to take action. In contrast, when you pose a question in other kinds of speeches, you give listeners food for thought.

  For example, Norm Bertasavage used a rhetorical question to conclude a speech to a local American Legion post. His speech commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of D-Day in World WarⅡ, the day that the Allied forces invaded Normandy to battle Hitler’s forces. He ended this way.

  Example:

  That day was a day of reckoning. It was a day when the bill came due. It was the day the price was paid for past failures. As we call to mind today those who paid that price on that day, we must ask ourselves one question. If we again let freedom and liberty slip through our fingers, who will come to pay the price to restore democracy and Western civilization? Remember this.

  6. Appealing to Action

  Earlier, you saw how John Ferguson introduced his speech to high school students during a Veteran’s Day assembly. Now look at the way Ferguson concluded that speech.

  Example:

  Let me leave you with an idea. If you truly desire to honor Vietnam veterans don’t stop with this assembly. Seek out those who served (perhaps your father, mother, uncle, aunt, teacher, or neighbor). Thank them for their service. Ask them to share their feeling and memories. That will bring them real honor, because in so doing you are telling them you understand and value their experiences and contribution. Again, from my heart, I thank you for the privilege of speaking to you this morning.

  The first sentence of Ferguson’s conclusion warned the audience that his speech was winding down. His next few sentences asked the audience to take action, something else a conclusion accomplishes. The last sentence signaled that he was finished speaking. In this way, Ferguson avoided an abrupt ending to the speech, and he left his audience with a sense of closure.

竹影无风 2004-03-27 20:18
第三章: 生动有力的结尾
  

结尾的作用

  你的开场白给人留下了重要的第一印象,结尾同样要留下重要的最后的印象。一个强有力的结尾能起到三种作用:第一,强调中心思想,加深印象。第二,激发听众的行动。第

  三,结束整个演讲。

  1.强调中心思想

  很多著名演讲的结尾都让我们记忆犹新,耳熟能详。比如,麦克阿瑟将军的退休演讲中,结尾的几句话就让人久久难忘。

  举例:

  “老兵们永远不会死去,他们只是淡出。”就像那首民歌里的老兵一样,现在我结束了军旅生涯,正在淡出--因为上帝赐予一个老兵能领会职责的智慧,他会尽力去完成。再见了。

  2.激发听众行动

  提供动机是生动有力的结尾的一个必要因素。如果你演讲是信息性的,你可能会希望引发听众对主题进行思考或进一步探讨。如果你的演讲是说服性的,你可能会希望听众采取某种可行的行动。

  在一个关于校园犯罪的演讲中,演讲者用了下面这段话作为结尾。

  举例:

  大多数大学校园里的犯罪行为都是完全可以避免的。在很多场合下,由于人们感到过于安全而放弃了采取必要的措施,所以越来越多的人才成了校园犯罪的受害者。如果记住这一点,你就完全可以避免受害。

  3.进行收尾

  一个理想的结尾能够制造出一种完美的终止感,让听众知道演讲结束了。你可以通过展望未来来取得终止的效果。注意约翰·西里博在他关于高等教育的演讲中是如何有效地运用了这一方法的。

  举例:

  这三个问题不仅与美国人相关,而且与任何高度关心高等教育的国家相关,与民主相关。它们不仅是我今天提出的重要问题,而且还为深入讨论奠定了基础。在接下来的小组讨论中,我期望能富有成效地交换意见。

  

结尾的技巧

  你可以运用六种常见的技巧中的任何一个来做一个生动有力、让人回味的结尾:1.总结全文,2.讲述故事,3.运用引言,4.呼应开头,5.提出问题,6.号召行动。很多技巧与开场白中的技巧是一样的。如果你在结尾运用与开场白相同的技巧,那么,你的演讲会有一种首尾呼应、有条不紊的感觉。不过,如果你用一种技巧开篇,而用另一种技巧收尾,也可以给人留下深刻的印象。当然,与开场白的技巧一样,并非每一个结尾技巧都适用于任何演讲或任何场合。

  1.总结全文

  运用总结全文结束演讲,有助于加深听众对演讲要点和中心思想的印象。

  约翰在他关于“乱排废气”的演讲中,娴熟地运用了总结全文的技巧结束了演讲。他利用总结全文表达了他对这一问题的担忧,提出了消除这一担忧的行动方法。

  举例:

  我很担心。担心我无力鼓励25%乱排废气的美国人去改正他们的行为,去排除引起汽车不恰当污染的因素。担心除非这种危害是即时的和可见的,否则美国公众不会有反应。担心EPA会再次表现出对工业的宽容。有三种方法可减轻我的担心:检查,减少(汽油中)铅含量,最重要的一点是要认识到这一点。

  2.讲述故事

  以故事做结尾效果不俗,因为故事有助于听众记住演讲的内容。故事不像总结那样直接,但是如果你能找到一个与中心思想或主题相关的生动形象的故事,那么效果也会相当不错。听众只要回想起这个故事,就会想起你的演讲内容。

  新西部中心主任菲利普在俄亥俄州托莱多大学毕业典礼上给毕业生作演讲时就运用了一个故事做结尾。他谈到在不到4分钟的时间里跑完1英里路程第一人班尼斯特。继1954年班尼斯特取得的这个成绩之后,一个又一个赛跑者步其后尘。菲利普是这样把这个故事与主题联系到一起的。

  举例:

  赛跑者和教练员都信仰他们的目标。他们都相信他们自己,并在他们新的准备和训练方法中确立自信。有了志在必得的勇气,他们就开始了奋斗,一次又一次,成绩与日俱进。所以,这正是我今天想跟你们说的。严守自由的传统。信奉我们的社会,相信它有能力为愿意冒险、热心变革的人提供新的机会。但是,重要的是,要相信你自己。对自己的准备和锤炼充满信心。然后,开始奋斗,一次又一次……天天向上。

  3.运用引言

  你还可以运用一句与中心思想或主题相称的引言结束演讲。你可以直接引用,或者如果你不想全部引用的话,也可以进行解释。无论如何,一定要让听众清楚引言或者被引用的人与你的演讲内容的关系。

  明尼苏达州肯考迪娅学院的学生玛丽曾做过一个关于儿童专门紧急保健的必要性的演讲,运用了一句引言结束全篇,看看她是如何运用的。

  举例:

  现在大家知道了儿童需要专门的紧急保健,而现行的制度却并没有给予他们。通过我提出的这些办法,我们可以尽我们的能力来保证我们所关心的孩子不再成为另一个改革的实验品。我愿意引用理查德·菲拉医生的话来强调目前行动的必要性。菲拉医生说:“最坏的结果是我们做了所有的努力,但孩子还是去世了,而父母还走过来感谢医生。他们会说:‘我们知道你已尽了全力。’那样我就会很头疼,因为我知道通常这不是真的。”

  4.呼应开头

  结束演讲的另一个方法就是在结尾处呼应开头。这种从哪里开始再到哪里结束的技巧能使听众有圆满感。此时,你要向听众展示你演讲的主要观点与开场白中的介绍是如何相关的。

  你已经知道格雷琴·里克特同学如何用一个故事来演讲“卫生保健作战地带”的。现在再来看一下她的结尾是如何与开场白呼应的。

  举例:

  加利福尼亚州急诊室里的提姆·德芙梅尔的英雄行为产生了一些健康的成果,所有三名医师都将完全康复,急诊室的安全通过安装防弹玻璃和门禁系统大大提高了。对医疗区域的攻击需要我们全力反击。总之,我们在医院里惟一需要做的是对我们医生和护士安全的努力。

  5.提出问题

  如同你在演讲开始时用一个问题来引起听众的好奇心一样,你也可以在结尾处提出问题。通常这种方法用在结束一个试图说服人的演讲,但也可用在有关信息、招待以及鼓励性的演讲。在说服性演讲中,可用于刺激听众采取行动。与之相反的是在另一些演讲中,当你提出问题时,你给了听众值得思考的东西。

  例如,Norm Bertasavage用极具说服力的提问来结束对当地美国军团的演讲。他的演讲是为了纪念二战时盟军登陆诺曼底与希特勒部队作战日十五周年的。他是这样来结尾的。

  举例:

  这天是最后清算的日子,是偿付的日子,要为过去的失败付出。我们今天在此回忆那天那些付出代价的人,我们必须问自己一个问题。如果我们再一次让自由和公正从我们的手中溜走,谁还会来恢复民主和西方文明呢?请记住这些。

  6.号召行动

  以前你已了解约翰·福格森在退伍军人节集会上向高中生做的演讲。现在再来看一下福格森是如何结束演讲的。

  举例:

  让我给你们出一个主意。假如你真的崇敬这些老兵,不要止步于这次集会。去寻找那些曾当过兵的人(也许是你的父亲、母亲、叔叔、阿姨、老师或邻居)。感谢他们的付出,让他们与你们共同分享他们的感受和回忆。通过这些活动,你会使他们知道你理解和珍惜他们的贡献和经验,使他们感到真切的自豪。我再一次从内心深处感谢你们今天早上能让我有讲话的机会。

  福格森演讲结尾的第一句话告诉听众演讲快结束了;接下来的几句话要求听众采取行动,来达到结尾的目的;最后一句表示他已结束演讲。这样,福格森避免了突然的结尾,使听众自己领会到演讲要结束了。

竹影无风 2004-03-27 20:19
4: Putting Your Speech Together

 OUTLINES

  Now that you have gathered enough information and skills to prepare the introduction, body, and conclusion of your speech, you are ready to reorganize it and outline it. A good outline meets four basic requirements:

  1. Each supporting point relates to the main point.

  2. Each supporting point contains only one idea.

  3. Supporting points are not repeated or restated.

  4. Each supporting parallel point has an equal level of importance.

  1. Each supporting point relates to the main point.

  Which supporting idea in the example below does not belong? Why not?Alcoholism is an international problem.

  A. Russia has a high alcoholism rate.

  B. France has the highest alcoholism rate in Europe.

  C. Alcoholics have more car accidents than nondrinkers.

  D. Japan has a severe juvenile alcoholism problem.

  The answer is C. Although it is an interesting fact, it is not directly related to the main point - alcoholism is an international problem.

  2. Each supporting point contains only one idea.

  What is wrong with the example below?

  Small cars are better than large cars.

  A. They are less expensive and easier to park.

  B. They get better gas mileage.

  Point A contains two separate ideas. The information should be outlined as follows:

  Small cars are better than large cars.

  A. They are less expensive.

  B. They are easier to park.

  C. They get better gas mileage.

  3. Supporting points are not repeated or restated.

  What is wrong with the example below?

  Students dislike the school cafeteria.

  A. There is very little to choose from.

  B. The food is too expensive.

  C. The menu is extremely limited.

  Points A and C repeat the same idea. The example below contains three supporting points that express different ideas.

  Students dislike the school cafeteria.

  A. There is very little to choose from.

  B. The food is too expensive.

  C. The eating utensils are always dirty.

  4. Each supporting parallel point has an equal level of importance.

  What is wrong with the example below?

  Sales in South America have fallen drastically.

  A. Colombia

  B. Lima

  C. Ecuador

  Points A and C are countries. Point B is a city. The points should be all cities or all countries. The information should be outlined as follows:

  Sales in South America have fallen drastically.

  A. Colombia

  B. Peru

  C. Ecuador

  

TRANSITIONS

  1. Functions of Transitions

  Transitions are words, phrases, or sentences that connect the various parts of your speech. They provide the audience with guideposts that help them follow the development of your thoughts and arguments. Use transitions in at least the following places.

  Transitions make it easy for your listeners to follow your plan for your speech. They remind your audienceswheresyou’ve been and tell themswheresyou’re going.

  Think of transitions in a speech as“signposts”along a highway as you travel from one city to another. For example, let’s say that you and a friend are en route from Miami to Disney World in Orlando. A sign that says,“Welcome to Ft. Lauderdale.”Shortly after that you see another sign that says“Orlando, 200 Miles.”You knowswheresyou’ve been and how far you are from your destination. The signposts reassure you that you are on the right road, and they help you to stay on track.

  Just as signposts on a highway are important, so are transitions in a speech. Transitions tell your audience that something new or important is about to happen in your speech.

  Here are the major transitional functions and some stylistic devices that you might use to serve these functions.

  (1) To announce the start of a major proposition or piece of evidence:

  - First, ...- A second argument...- A closely related problem...- If you want further evidence, look at...- Next, consider...- My next point...- An even more compelling argument...

  (2) To signal that you are drawing a conclusion from previously given evidence and argument:

  - Thus, ...- Therefore, ...- So, as you can see...- It follows, then, that...

  (3) To alert the audience to your introducing a qualification or exception:

  - But, ...- However, also consider...

  (4) To remind listeners of what has just been said and that it is connected with another issue that will now be considered:

  - In contrast to..., consider also...- Not only..., but also...- In addition to ..., we also need to look at...- Not only should we..., but we should also...

  (5) To signal the part of your speech that you are approaching:

  - By way of introduction...- In conclusion...- Now, let’s discuss why we are here today...- So, what’s the solution? What should we do?

  2. Content Transition

  (1) Transition after the Introduction

  Every speech needs a transition after the introduction. This transition should signal that the main part of the speech is about to begin. For example, look at the outline for“A Fabulous Fantasia Cruise”. After the introduction, the following transition signals the first section of the body:

  First, you’ll be pleased to learn about the comfortable cabins that will be your rooms for the week.

  (2) Transitions within the Body

  Transitions are also needed between each section of the body. This kind of transition generally consists of two separate sentences that provide two important functions:

  A. to review the information just presented,

  B. to preview the next section.

  For example, look at the outline for“A Fabulous Fantasia Cruise”. After talking about guest accommodations, the following transition is used before talking about the ship’s facilities:

  Now you can see how comfortable you’ll be while in your cabin. However, the ship has many facilities for you to enjoy when you leave your cabin.

  After talking about the ship’s facilities, this next transition is used before discussing ports:

  As you can see, the ship has many facilities for you to enjoy while onboard. You will need to get off the ship insgroupsto visit the four ports.

  After discussing ports, the following transition is used before introducing shore visit activities:

  You now know which exotic places you’ll be visiting. You will have a choice of many fun things to do while on shore.

  Finally, after talking about shore visit activities, the transition below is used before discussing shipboard activities:

  We hope the shore visit activities won’t tire you out too much. You’ll need your energy, because once you’re back on the ship many other activities await you!

  (3) Transition before the Conclusion

  Every speech needs a transition before the conclusion. This last transition acts as signal that the speech is about to end. For example, look at the outline for“A Fabulous Fantasia Cruise”. The last section is about shipboard activities. The following transition links the body and the conclusion:

  With all these great onboard activities, you might not even want to leave the ship at all!

  3. Question Transition

  The following is concerned with how the question transition works in conjunction with the introduction, body and conclusion.

  “Good afternoon, everyone. Thanks for the opportunity to be with you today.

  “Well, why are we here?

  “We are meeting today to discuss a problem that will have a tremendous impact on everyone here.

  “What is the problem I am referring to?”

  Tell them what the components of the problem are.

  “What are we going to do about this terrible problem?”

  Give them a solution or alternative solutions to the problem, saving yours for last. You can do this with another question transition after you’ve laid out the alterative solutions.

  “What do I think we should do?”

  Tell them what your solution is.

  “Why do I believe this is our best alternative?”

  Tell them why you do, then go to your conclusion:

  “Finally, ladies and gentlemen, what do I need from you?”

 

 REHEARSING

  Effective public speaking delivery does not come naturally - it takes practice. Learn now how to use your practice time most effectively and efficiently.

  The goal of practice is to develop a delivery that will help you achieve the purposes of your speech. Rehearsal should enable you to see how the speech will flow as a whole and to make any changes and improvements you think necessary. Through practice you will learn the speech effectively and determine how best to present it to your audience. The following procedures should assist you in using your time most effectively.

  Rehearse the Speech as a Whole Rehearse the speech from beginning to end. Do not rehearse the speech in parts. Rehearse it from getting out of your seat through the introduction, body, and conclusion, to returning to your seat. Be sure to rehearse the speech with all the examples and illustrations (and audiovisual aids if any) included. This will enable you to connect the parts of the speech and to see how they interact with each other.

  Time the Speech Time the speech during each rehearsal. Make the necessary adjustments on the basis of this timing.

  Approximate the Actual Speech Situation Rehearse the speech under conditions as close as possible to those under which you will deliver it. If possible, rehearse the speech in the same room in which you will present it. If this is impossible, try to simulate the actual conditions as close as you can - in your living room or even bathroom. If possible, rehearse the speech in front of a few supportive listeners. It is always helpful (but especially for your beginning speeches) that your listeners be supportive rather than too critical. Merelyshavingslisteners present during your rehearsal will further simulate the conditions under which you will eventually speak. Get together with two or three other students in an empty classroomswheresyou can each serve as speaker and listener.

  See Yourself as a Speaker Rehearse the speech in front of a full-length mirror. This will enable you to see yourself and to see how you will appear to the audience. This may be extremely difficult at first, and you may have to force yourself to watch. After a few attempts, however, you will begin to see the value of this experience. Practice your eye contact, your movements, and your gestures in front of the mirror.

  Incorporate Changes and Make Delivery Notes Make any changes in the speech that seem appropriate between rehearsals. Do not interrupt your rehearsal to make notes or changes. If you do, you may never experience the entire speech from beginning to end. While making these changes, note too any words whose pronunciation or articulation you wish to check. Also, insert pause notations (“slow down”warnings, and other deliver suggestions)sintosyour outline.

  If possible, record your speech (ideally, on videotape) so you can hear exactly what your listeners will hear: your volume, rate, pitch, articulation and pronunciation, and pauses. You will thus be in a better position to improve these qualities.

  Rehearse Often Rehearse the speech as often as seems necessary. Two useful guides are: (1)rehearse the speech at least three or four times, less than this is sure to be too little; (2)rehearse the speech as long as your rehearsals result in improvements in the speech or in your delivery.

竹影无风 2004-03-27 20:20
第四章: 演讲稿贯通
  

提纲

  开场白、正文和结尾的材料与技巧已经万事俱备,现在只需你运用这些技巧将材料重新加以组织,列出提纲。一个理想的提纲需要达到四项要求:

  1.每个分论点都不能偏离总论点。

  2.每个分论点只能包含一个思想。

  3.分论点不能相互重复。

  4.每个平行的分论点重要程度要一样。

  1.每个分论点都不能偏离总论点。

  下面例子中的哪一个分论点与主题不符?为什么?

  酗酒是一个国际范围的问题。

  A.俄罗斯的酗酒比例很高。

  B.法国是欧洲酗酒率最高的国家。

  C.酗酒者比不饮酒者更易出车祸。

  D.日本青少年酗酒问题很严重。

  答案是C论点。虽然这个事实也很有趣,但是它与主题--酗酒是一个国际范围的问题--没有直接的关系。

  2.每个分论点只能包含一个思想。

  看看下面这个例子的问题出在哪里?

  小型汽车比大型汽车好。

  A.小型汽车的价格比较便宜,且易于停放。

  B.小型汽车1加仑汽油所行驶的里程(汽油消耗定额)多。

  分论点A包含了两个独立的思想。这个提纲可以这样组织:

  小型汽车比大型汽车好。

  A.小型汽车的价格比较便宜。

  B.小型汽车更易于停放。

  C.小型汽车1加仑汽油所行驶的里程(汽油消耗定额)多。

  3. 分论点不能相互重复。

  看看下面这个例子的问题出在哪里?

  学生不喜欢学校的自助餐厅。

  A.饭菜选择的余地很小。

  B.饭菜价格太贵。

  C.菜单目录极其有限。

  分论点A和C重复了相同的思想。下面的例子包含了三个表达不同思想的分论点。

  学生不喜欢学校的自助餐厅。

  A.饭菜选择的余地很小。

  B.饭菜价格太贵。

  C.餐具总是不卫生。

  4.每个分论点在重要程度上要一样。

  下面这个例子有什么问题?

  南美销售额狂跌。

  A.哥伦比亚

  B.利马

  C.厄瓜多尔

  分论点A和C都是国家。分论点B是一个城市。三个分论点应该要么全是城市,要么全是国家。这个提纲可以这样组织:

  南美销售额狂跌。

  A.哥伦比亚

  B.秘鲁

  C.厄瓜多尔

 

 过渡段

  1.过渡段的作用

  过渡段是指将演讲各部分串联起来的词语、短语或句子。它为听众提供标示,以利于听众理解你的思路和论点的展开。至少要在以下几个地方运用过渡段。

  过渡段使听众易于理解你的演讲构思。它可以提醒听众你讲到了哪里,并对将要讲到的内容加以提示。

  可以把演讲中的过渡段视作两城市间的公路路标。比如说,你和一位朋友正在从迈阿密到奥兰多迪斯尼世界的路上。一个路标上写着:“罗德道尔欢迎你!”过了一会儿,你又看到另一个路标:“奥兰多,200英里。”这时你就知道了自己身处何方,距离目的地还有多远。这些路标使你确信自己没有走错路,帮你继续前行。

  演讲中过渡段的重要性犹如公路路标之重要性一样。过渡段提示听众下面有新鲜的或重要的内容在等着他们。

  这里是一些主要的过渡作用与一些发挥这些作用的体裁手段。

  (1)表明开始论述某一观点或提出证据:

  - 首先,……

  - 第二个论据……

  - 一个密切相关的问题……

  - 如果你要求进一步的证据,请看……

  - 接下来,设想……

  - 我接下来要阐明的一点是……

  - 一个更有说服力的论据……

  (2)表明你要从前面给出的证据和论据中做出结论:

  - 因而,……

  - 因此,……

  - 所以,你可以看到……

  - 那么,可以推论……

  (3)提醒听众注意,你要提出判定或异议:

  - 但是,……

  - 然而,……

  (4)向听众提示刚说过的内容,提醒他们这一内容与将要讨论的另一内容相关:

  - 与……形成比照,还要考虑……

  - 不仅……,而且……

  - 此外,我们还需要看看……

  - 我们不仅应该……,而且还应该……

  (5)表明你的演讲将要说到的部分:

  - 通过介绍……

  - 总之,……

  - 现在,让我们讨论一下我们今天到这里的原因……

  - 所以,有什么解决办法呢?我们该做些什么呢?

  2.内容过渡段

  (1)开场白后的过渡段

  每一个演讲在开场白后都需要有一个过渡段。这个过渡段的作用是表明演讲的主体部分即将开始。我们以“一次神奇的幻想航行”的提纲为例。开场白后,紧接着的过渡段提示了正文第一部分的开始:

  首先,得知这周内这些舒适的船舱将成为你享用的空间,你一定会很高兴。

  (2)正文部分的过渡段

  正文的各部分之间也需要过渡段。一般来说,这种过渡段包含两个单独的句子,发挥两种重要的作用:

  A.回顾刚讲过的内容,

  B.概述将要讲述的内容。

  以“一次神奇的幻想航行”的提纲为例。在谈完旅客的膳宿之后,接下来就是一个过渡段,然后再谈客轮的其他设施:

  现在你可以看到,你在自己的船舱中有多舒适。然而,如果你走出船舱,船上还有很多设施可供你享用。

  谈完船上设施,又是一个过渡段,然后再转到港口。

  正如你所看到的,船上有很多设施可供你尽情享用。要参观港口,你得下船来。谈完港口,再来一个过渡段,然后开始谈岸上的参观活动:

  现在大家知道了将要参观哪些奇异的地方。在岸上你可以选择很多好玩的事来做。

  最后,谈完岸上的参观活动,再谈船上的活动,这之间要插上下面的过渡段:

  但愿岸上的参观不会使你精疲力竭。你需要保持精力,因为船上还有很多其他活动在等着你呢!

  (3)结尾前的过渡段

  任何演讲的结尾前都需要有过渡段。这最后一个过渡段的作用是暗示演讲即将告以段落。我们以“一次神奇的幻想航行”的提纲为例。最后一部分是关于船上活动的。下面这个过渡段在正文与结尾之间起到了连接的作用:

  有这些精彩的船上活动,没准你根本就不想下船了呢。

  3.问题过渡段

  接下来就涉及到在开场白、正文与结尾的关联中,问题过渡段是如何发挥作用的。

  “大家下午好,非常感谢今天有这样一个机会与大家在一起。

  “那么,我们为什么到这儿来呢?

  “我们今天齐聚这里,要探讨一个将会给在座的各位带来巨大影响的问题。

  “我指的是什么问题呢?”

  告诉听众问题的来龙去脉。

  “关于这个棘手的问题,我们要如何解决呢?”

  给他们提供一个解决方法或者一个可供选择方案,而把你的解决办法留到最后说。你可以在提出一个可供选择的方法之后,再利用一个问题过渡段,然后说出你的解决办法。

  “我们何去何从,我的意见呢?”

  告诉他们你的办法。

  “我为什么认为这是我们的最佳选择?”

  阐述你的理由,然后做结尾:

  “最后,女士们,先生们,我需要你们做什么呢?”

 

 演练

  生动有力的公共演讲并非自然而成--而是需要大量练习。现在我们就学习如何最有效地进行操练。

  演练的目的在于提高演讲水平,有助于你达到自己演讲的目的。通过演练,你应当明白如何将演讲一气呵成,做一些你认为必要的改动和提高。演练是学习演讲的有效方法,在这个过程中,你能够确定如何最有效地将内容传播给听众。下面这个程序有助于你最有效地运用你的时间。

  演练要从头到尾,一气呵成。不要一部分一部分地演练。从椅子上站起,做开场白、正文、结尾,一直到返回座位,都要演练。演练时一定不要漏掉例子和图表(以及视听手段)。这有助于你将演讲的各部分有效衔接,从而搞清它们之间的关系。

  掐准演讲的时间。每次演练都要掐好时间。根据这个时间进行必要的调整。

  模拟真实的演讲情形。演练的情境要尽可能与你将要演讲的情境接近。如果可能的话,就在你将要进行演讲的场所演练。如果做不到,那就尽量模拟真实情形--在客厅里或者在浴室里。如果可能的话,可以找一些支持你的听众,在其面前进行演练。听众积极配合,而不是太挑剔的话,总是很起作用(尤其是对你刚开始演讲来说)。演练时只要有听众在场,就能更好地模拟真实的演讲环境。找上两三个同学,在一间没人的教室里相互扮演演讲者和听众。

  把自己当成演讲者。站在大镜子前进行演练。这样可以使你看到自己,看清自己在听众面前会是什么样子。第一次可能会很难,你需要强迫自己观看。然而,试上几次后,你就会发现这种做法的好处。在镜子面前练习目光接触,动作手势。

  灵活多变,做好演讲提纲。在每次演练中做些适当的变化。不要打断演练来做笔记或调整。如果你做了,你可能就无法体会整个演讲如何一气呵成。做调整时,要记下那些需要核对发音的单词。同时,在提纲中要标上休止符号(“放慢”标记和其他演说建议)。

  如果可能的话,可以录下自己的演讲(最好用录像机),这样你就能完完全全地当一次自己的听众了:听到自己的音量、语速、音调、发音、声音清晰度以及停顿。这样你就能更好地加以提高。

  要经常演练。经常演练很有必要。两条颇有价值的指导原则:(1)至少要演练3~4次,(2)只要演练有助于演讲质量的提高,就要不断演练。

竹影无风 2004-03-30 21:59
5: Speaking to Inform

 WHAT IS AN INFORMATIVE SPEECH

  Informative speaking is all around us. Any speech is an informative speech if it present information to an audience. A report, a teacher’s explanation, and a talk at asgroupsmeeting are all examples of informative speeches.

  When do we make informative speeches? We make them all the time. Whenever we give a stranger direction, explain a problem to a mechanic, or describe an illness to a doctor, we are speaking to inform.

  The goal in giving an informative speech is to state ideas simply, clearly, and interestingly. If you achieve this goal, the audience will understand and remember your speech. In this chapter, you will learn how to build an informative speech.

  

PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION, BODY AND CONCLUSION

  Step 1: Prepare an Attention-Getting Opener

  At the beginning of your speech, it is very important to grab your audience’s attention and make them interested in what you have to say. Four different ways to prepare an interesting, attention-getting introduction follow:

  (1)Ask your audience a series of rhetorical questions.

  Rhetorical questions are asked for dramatic effect with no answers expected. Your listeners will immediately be interested in knowing the answers. The following rhetorical questions were used to open a speech about the process of getting a tattoo:

  What can cost ten dollars or a thousand dollars?

  What can be every color of the rainbow?

  What can be with you as long as you live?

  What can you wear on your arm, your cheek, your leg, or even your back?

  (2)Tell a story.

  People love to listen to a story. They want to find out what it is about. This story was used to open a speech about the Gold Museum in Bogotá, Colombia:

  A guard took mesintosa square room with no lights. The room was so black I couldn’t even see my own feet. All of a sudden a hidden electric wall closed behind me. There was no way out. I thought I was in a tomb. All at once bright lights came on. I was surrounded by gold on all four sides!

  (3)State a surprising fact.

  The statement below was used to introduce a speech about the billion-dollar business of services, or products to get almost anything you want without cash:

  You can get almost anything you want without cash! And you can begin today!

  (4) State a well-known quotation.

  This quotation from William Shakespeare’s Hamlet was used to open a speech about the disadvantages of borrowing:

  Neither a borrower nor a lender be, for loan oft loses both itself and friend.

  Step 2: Prepare the Body

  Then prepare the body of your speech. Arrange the points of your speech in a clear, logical manner. That way, your audience can follow you, understand your information, and remember what you have said. Insgroupsto do this, it is important to choose an organizational pattern that fits your topic.

  Read about the eight organizational patterns below. Then, choose the best one for your particular topic.

  (1)Past Present-Future. Use this pattern to discuss how something once was, how it has changed, and how it will be in the future. For example, in discussing the Olympics, you might organize your information under the following three headings:

  Ⅰ.The history of the Olympics

  Ⅱ. The Olympics today

  Ⅲ. The future of the Olympics

  (2)Time. Use this pattern to describe how processes, personal experiences, events, or activities happen by the hour, part of the day, week, month, or year. It can also be used to explain the steps in a process. For example, in speaking about making a speech, you might organize your information under the following headings:

  Ⅰ.Choosing a topic

  Ⅱ. Gathering information

  Ⅲ. Making an outline

  Ⅳ. Presenting the speech

  (3)Problem-Solution.Use this pattern to speak about a specific problem and ways to solve it. (Note: A problem isn’t always a negative situation, such as crime or child abuse. It can also be a positive situation, such as choosing a career or about the problem of choosing.) For example, in speaking about the problem of choosing the college thats right for you, you might present the following solutions:

  Ⅰ.Read the different college catalogs.

  Ⅱ. Visit campuses of different colleges.

  Ⅲ. Talk to people who attend various colleges.

  Ⅳ. Talk to teachers at the colleges you are considering.

  (4)  Location.Use this pattern to divide a topicsintosdifferent geographical locations. For example, in speaking about interesting marriage customs, you might use the following sequence:

  Ⅰ.Marriage customs in Japan

  Ⅱ.Marriage customs in Saudi Arabia

  Ⅲ. Marriage customs in the United States

  (5) Cause-Effect.Use this pattern to describe a particular situation and its effect. For example, in speaking about the effects of cigarette smoking, you might discuss:

  Ⅰ.The effects of smoking on pregnant women

  Ⅱ. The effect of secondhand smoke

  Ⅲ. The effects of smoking on people with allergies

  (6) Effect-Cause. Use this pattern do describe a particular situation and its causes. For example, in speaking about reasons for drug addiction, you might discuss:

  Ⅰ.The easy availability of drugs

  Ⅱ. The need to escape from the pressures of work

  Ⅲ. The lack of education about harmful effects of drugs

  (7) Related Subtopics. Use this pattern to divide one topicsintosdifferent parts, or subtopics. For example, in speaking about false advertising, you might discuss:

  Ⅰ. False advertising on television

  Ⅱ. False advertising in magazines

  Ⅲ. False advertising on the radio

  (8)Advantage-Disadvantage. Use this pattern to talk about both positive and negative aspects of a topic in a balanced, objective manner. For example, in speaking about the death penalty, you might discuss:

  Ⅰ.Advantages of capital punishment

  Ⅱ. Disadvantages of capital punishment

  Step 3: Prepare a Summary

  Every speech needs a summary of the information presented. The best way to summarize your information is to remind your audience of what you said by repeating the main points covered in the body of your speech.

  Example 1

  Well, I’ve given you some very important information today. You now know:

  A. How to prepare if a hurricane is coming

  B. What safety measures to make during the storm

  C. What to do after the hurricane is over

  Example 2

  As you can see, the Olympic Games are very important to people all over the world. I hope you learned some interesting information about:

  A. The history of the Olympics

  B. The Olympics today

  C. The future of the Olympic Games

  Step 4: Prepare Memorable Concluding Remarks

  Every speech needs an ending that leaves the audience thinking about and remembering what was said. Like attention-getting openers, memorable concluding remarks can take the form of rhetorical questions, stories, surprising facts, or quotations. Of these suggestions, quotations are popular among many famous public speakers.

  Example 1

  President John F. Kennedy ended many of his speeches with this quotation from the poet Robert Browning:“Some men see things as they are, and ask,‘Why’? I dare to dream of things that never were, and ask,‘Why’not?”

  Example 2

  Civil-rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. ended his famous“I Have a Dream”speech with words from an old spiritual song:“Free at last, free at last, thank God almighty, we are free at last.”

  Say your memorable concluding remarks slowly and clearly, maintaining eye contact with your audience. Be as dramatic and confident as possible!

 

 OUTLINING AN INFORMA-TIVE SPEECH

  The outline that follows shows how one student outlined an informative speech. Notice how it includes the following components:

  Attention-getting opener

  Preview

  Body

  Summary

  Presentation

  Memorable concluding remarks

  Also, notice how transitions have been used to connect the components.

  ATTENTION-GETTING OPENER

  Every student in this room has something in common with famous astronauts, Olympic athletes, actors, politicians, and business executive. It’s a common affliction that causes pain, suffering, and distress. Can you guess what it is? I’ll tell you. It’s called stage fright.

  PREVIEW

  Today we will be learning four major facts about stage fright.

  Ⅰ.The physical symptoms of stage fright

  Ⅱ. The causes of stage fright

  Ⅲ. Famous people who have had stage fright

  Ⅳ. What can be done about stage fright

  TRANSITION: OK, let’s get started on our investigation of stage fright by first looking at its six major symptoms.

  BODY

  Ⅰ. Physical symptoms of stage fright

  A. Rapid breathing

  B. Rapid heart rate

  C. Dry mouth

  D. Butterflies in stomach

  E.Increased perspiration

  F. Trembling hands

  TRANSITION: Now you understand the symptoms of stage fright. Let’s continue our investigation by examining the causes of stage fright.

  Ⅱ. Causes of stage fright

  A. Many people worry that they’ll forget what they want to say.

  B. Others are afraid that they’ll look silly.

  C. Some people think that the audience won’t like them.

  D. International students might worry that their English isn’t very good.

  TRANSITION: Now you are aware of some of the causes of stage fright. Let’s continue our inquirysintosstage fright by looking at a few famous people who have suffered from this affliction.

  Ⅲ. Famous people who have had stage fright

  A.Winston Churchill once said that he thought there was a block of ice in his stomach each time he made a speech.

  B. Julio Iglesias has revealed that he is nervous about his pronunciation when speaking English.

  C. Jane Fonda has admitted to having“tremendous fear.”

  D. Olivia Newton-John admits to shaking and crying before a performance.

  TRANSITION: As you can see, you are in good company with famous people who have has stage fright. Now, let’s investigate what you can do to overcome this common problem.

  Ⅳ.What can be done about stage fright

  A. Short-term solutions

  1. Be thoroughly prepared and practice before a presentation.

  2. Take your time before you start to speak.

  a) Gently put your notes on the speaker’s stand.

  b) Establish eye contact with your audience before beginning.

  c) Take several deep breaths before beginning.

  B. Long-term solutions

  1.Remember that stage fright is normal.

  2. Get as much experience as possible.

  3. Talk about stage fright with friends.

  TRANSITION: Now that you understand what you can do to reduce stage fright, our investigation is complete.

  SUMMARY

  You should now understand four important facts about stage fright.

  Ⅰ. The physical symptoms of stage fright

  Ⅱ.The causes of stage fright

  Ⅲ. Famous people who have had stage fright

  Ⅳ. What can be done about stage fright

  MEMORABLE CONCLUDING REMARKS

  In conclusion, stage fright is like a lion in a cage. It’s only dangerous if it’s allowed to roam free! Now that you know how to deal with stage fright, you’ll be able to keep this beast under control. Remember, as long as you are in control of it, your stage fright, like the lion, will be unable to harm you!

竹影无风 2004-03-30 22:01
第五章: 信息性演讲
  

什么叫信息性演讲

  信息性演讲随处可见。任何演讲,只要向听众提供了信息,就可称之为信息性演讲。新闻报道、教师的讲解、会议发言都算得上典型的信息性演讲。

  信息性演讲应用于什么场合呢?答案是:任何场合。给陌生人指路,向机修工说明问题,还有向医生说明病情,我们都是在提供信息。

  信息性演讲的目标是把观点陈述得简洁清楚、富有情趣。做到了这一点,听众才能对演讲的内容深刻领会,过耳不忘。本章旨在教你学会如何进行信息性演讲。

  

开场白、正文和结尾的准备

  步骤1:准备一个引人入胜的开头。

  在演讲的开头,至关重要的是抓住听众的注意力,激发起他们对演讲内容的兴趣。有四种方法可以把开场白做得趣味盎然、引人入胜。

  (1)向听众提出一系列的设问。

  设问的目的是为了取得强烈的效果,并不需要听众来回答。听众会立刻对问题的答案产生兴趣。一个关于制作纹身过程的演讲采用了下面这些设问:

  什么东西可值10美元,又价值上千?

  什么东西如同彩虹七色俱全?

  什么东西能一生与你相伴?

  什么东西你可以饰于胳膊、脸颊、腿部,甚至后背?

  (2)讲述故事。

  人人都喜欢听故事,都愿意探寻故事的来龙去脉。一个关于哥伦比亚波哥大黄金博物馆的演讲就是用下面这个故事作为开篇的。

  一个哨兵将我带进一间方形的屋子,屋里没有灯光,漆黑一片,我甚至看不到自己的脚。一扇隐秘的电动门突然在我身后关闭。任何出口都没有。我觉得自己如同身处坟墓之中。突然,雪亮的灯光亮起。我已经身陷黄金之中了。

  (3)陈述一个惊人的事实。

  下面这段陈述就是用来作为一个关于你不用现钞就可以得到几乎任何你想要的东西的上亿美元的服务企业或产品的开场白。

  你可以得到几乎任何你想要的东西,而且不用现钞!今天你就可以开始。

  (4)引用一句广为人知的谚语。

  这是引自莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》中的一句话。一个探讨借贷弊端的演讲就是用它来开篇的。

  无论是借款人,还是出借人,在借贷中经常会迷失自己和朋友。

  步骤2:正文的准备

  现在准备演讲的正文部分。把你演讲的要点条理清晰、逻辑分明地组织起来。这样,听众就能够跟上你的思路,领会你的信息,记住演讲的内容。要想做到这一点,关键是选择一个与你的演讲主题相适应的组织结构。

  读一读下面这八种组织结构。然后,为你的主题选一个最为合适的结构。

  (1)过去、现在和将来结构这种结构用来探讨某一事物曾经如何,现在有何发展变化,将来又会怎样。比如,讨论奥运会,你可以按下面三个标题来组织材料:

  Ⅰ.奥运会的历史

  Ⅱ.奥运会的现状

  Ⅲ.奥运会的明天

  (2)时间结构这一结构用来描述某些过程、个人经历、事件或者活动是如何按照时、日、周、月、年发生的。它还可以用来说明某一过程的步骤。比如,探讨演讲,你可以按照下面的标题组织材料:

  Ⅰ.选题

  Ⅱ.组材

  Ⅲ.列提纲

  Ⅳ.作演讲

  (3)问题解决结构这种结构用来探讨某一具体问题以及解决办法。(注意:问题并不一定是负面的,如犯罪、虐待儿童。它也可以是正面的,如择业或关于选择的问题。)比如,探讨如何选择一个适合自己的大学的问题,你可以提出如下方法:

  Ⅰ.阅读不同的大学目录

  Ⅱ.参观不同的大学校园

  Ⅲ.向考入不同大学的大学生咨询

  Ⅳ.向你意向中的大学老师咨询

  (4)位置关系结构运用这一结构,你可以按照地理方位的不同来分述主题。比如,演讲的主题是非常有趣的婚俗,你可以按下面这个顺序来进行:

  Ⅰ.日本的婚俗

  Ⅱ.沙特阿拉伯的婚俗

  Ⅲ.美国的婚俗

  (5)原因结果结构这一结构用于描述一种特定的情形及其结果。比如,演讲的主题是吸烟的影响,你可以这样进行:

  Ⅰ.吸烟对孕妇的影响

  Ⅱ.二手烟的影响

  Ⅲ.吸烟对过敏人群的影响

  (6)结果原因结构这一结构用于描述一种特定的情形及其原因。比如:演讲的主题是毒品成瘾的原因,你可以这样进行:

  Ⅰ.毒品容易获得

  Ⅱ.摆脱工作压力的需要

  Ⅲ.对毒品的危害性缺乏教育

  (7)相关副题结构运用这一结构可将一个主题分成几个不同的副题进行阐述。比如,演讲的内容为虚假广告,你可以这样来展开:

  Ⅰ.电视虚假广告

  Ⅱ.杂志虚假广告

  Ⅲ.广播虚假广告

  (8)利弊结构运用这一结构可谈论一个主题的正反两个方面,不偏不倚,客观公正。比如,谈论死刑,你可以这样进行:

  Ⅰ.死刑的好处

  Ⅱ.死刑的弊端

  步骤3:准备小结

  任何演讲都需要对所讲过的内容加以总结。总结内容的最好方法就是重复正文中涵盖的要点,向听众提示你说过的内容。

  例1

  好啦,今天我给大家讲的这些内容都很重要,现在大家都已经明白了:

  A.如果飓风来临,该先做好哪些准备工作。

  B.飓风肆虐时,该采取哪些安全措施。

  C.飓风过后,还需要做些什么。

  例2

  正像大家所看到的,奥运会是全世界人们的大事,我希望大家对这些有意思的内容都已经很清楚了:

  A.奥运会的历史

  B.奥运会的现状

  C.奥运会的明天

  步骤4:准备一个回味无穷的结束语

  任何演讲的结尾都应该让人回味无穷。与吸引人的开篇一样,结束语要想绕梁三日,也可采取设问、故事、惊人的事实或者引语等形式。这些建议、引语在很多著名的公共演讲者中广为流传。

  例1

  肯尼迪在多次演讲中都引用过诗人布朗宁的一句话来结束演说:“有些人只看到存在的事物,然后问‘为什么?’而我敢于梦想那些永不可能的事情,然后问‘为什么不呢?’”

  例2

  民权领袖马丁·路德·金在他那篇著名的《我有一个梦想》中,引用了一首古老圣歌的歌词作为结尾:“终于自由了,终于自由了,感谢万能的上帝,我们终于自由了。”

  结束语语速要慢,口齿要清楚,要保持与听众目光接触,要尽可能地富于表现力,信心满怀。

  

概述信息性演讲

  下面是一个学生所列的信息性演讲的提纲。注意这个提纲包含了下列哪些要素:

  引人入胜的开篇

  演讲概述

  正文

  总结

  过耳不忘的结束语

  同时,注意过渡段是如何对各部分进行衔接的。步骤1:引人入胜的开篇

  在座的每一位同学与著名的宇航员、奥林匹克运动员、演员、政治家以及经理都有相同之处。这是一个给人带来烦闷、苦恼和忧虑的共同的痛苦。你能猜出是什么吗?我告诉你们,它就是怯场。

  步骤2:演讲概述

  今天我们将了解怯场的四个主要问题。

  Ⅰ.怯场的生理征兆

  Ⅱ.怯场的原因

  Ⅲ.哪些名人曾怯过场

  Ⅳ.怯场时该怎么办

  过渡段:好啦,让我们从怯场的六个主要征兆入手,开始进行探讨。

  步骤3:正文

  Ⅰ.怯场的生理征兆

  A.呼吸加速

  B. 心跳加速

  C. 口干舌燥

  D. 恶心欲呕

  E. 出汗增多

  F. 双手颤抖

  过渡段:现在大家了解了怯场的征兆。下面我们继续探究怯场的原因。

  Ⅱ.怯场的原因

  A.很多人担心忘词。

  B.还有些人担心自己的样子太傻。

  C.有些人认为听众厌恶他们。

  D.外国学生可能担心自己的英语不纯正。

  过渡段:现在大家明白了怯场是由哪些原因引起的。下面我们继续进行,接着看一看一些曾经为怯场而倍感苦恼的名人。

  Ⅲ.曾经怯过场的名人

  A.丘吉尔曾说,每次演讲他都觉得胃里像放着一块冰。

  B.胡里奥曾透露,一说英语他就为自己的发音感到紧张。

  C.简·方达承认自己“非常害怕”。

  D.牛顿约翰承认自己在演讲前抖动不已,大喊大叫。

  过渡段:正如你所看到的,不少名人曾经怯过场,与你不相上下。现在,我们再看看如何克服这一常见的问题。

  Ⅳ.怯场时该怎么办?

  ①权宜之计

  A.在演讲之前作充分的准备和练习。

  B.开始演讲前,从容不迫。

  a)将你的演讲稿轻轻地放到演说桌上。

  b)开口之前与听众进行目光接触。

  c)做几口深呼吸,然后再开始。

  ②长期解决办法

  A.记住,怯场纯属正常现象。

  B.尽可能获取丰富的经验。

  C.与朋友讨论怯场。

  过渡段:现在,大家已经搞清楚了如何消除怯场,我们的探讨也告一段落了。

  步骤4:总结

  大家现在应该弄明白了怯场的四个重要问题。

  Ⅰ.怯场的生理征兆

  Ⅱ.怯场的原因

  Ⅲ.哪些名人曾怯过场

  Ⅳ.怯场时该怎么办

  步骤5:过耳不忘的结束语

  总之,怯场就如同笼中雄狮,只有任其逍遥才有危险。大家既然明白了如何对付怯场,也就能够缚住这一猛兽。记住,只要把它控制住了,怯场就如同笼中雄狮,不会对你构成威胁。

竹影无风 2004-03-31 21:08
6: Speaking to Persuade
 

 WHAT IS A PERSUASIVE SPEECH

  Persuasive speaking is all around us. Any speech is persuasive if its purpose is to convince others to change their feelings, beliefs, or behavior. A salesperson trying to convince someone to buy a product, a political leader trying to get someone to vote a certain way, and a teacher lecturing about why a history class should be required are all speaking to persuade.

  When do we make persuasive speeches? We make them all the time. When we ask a friend to lend us money, ask our teacher for a higher grade, try to convince a sibling to lose some weight, or try to persuade a parent to buy us something, our goal is to try to change or influence others.

  In this chapter, you will learn how to build a persuasive speech.

  

PREPARING THE INTRODUCTION, BODY AND CONCLUSION

  Step 1: Prepare an Opener Building on Areas of Agreement

  The introduction to a persuasive speech is very important. Insgroupsto convince listeners to agree with you, it is essential to first make them trust you and to see you as a person who thinks as they do. The best way to do this is to begin your speech by talking about common areas of agreement. You can do this by first discussing:

  common goals (we all want the same basic things in life)

  common problems (we are all concerned about this particular problem)

  common experiences (we all know what it is like to ...)

  Example A:“Highway Speech Limits Are Too High”

  Most of us know people who have had friends or family injured or killed in terrible car accidents on the highways. Certainly we’ve all read or heard about these tragedies in the news. We all want to live long, happy, healthy lives and not worry about the possibility of accidents. No one wants to worry about whether they will arrive at their destination safely every time they get in a car.

  Example B:“Capital Punishment Should Be Legal”

  I’m sure everyone here is concerned about crime in our community. Many of us know that it isn’t always safe to go out alone at night or even to walk through a dark parking lot to get to our car. All of us want to feel safe in our homes, in our cars, and on the streets. We would all like to see the amount of crime reduced.

  Example C:“Donate Money to the Red Cross”

  Although we take many things for granted, we all know how fortunate we are to have nice clothes to wear, all places in the world aren’t so lucky. There are many starving and homeless people on every continent. Most of you would be willing to help people less fortunate than yourselves if you know what to do.Step 2: Prepare a Statement of Purpose

  Now that you have shown your audience that you are a sensible person who shares their values and beliefs, the next step is to clearly state the specific purpose of your speech.

  Example A:“Highway Speech Limits Are Too High”

  The maximum speed limit on U.S. highways should be fifty miles per hour.

  Example B:“Capital Punishment Should Be Legal”

  Legalizing capital punishment can help prevent crime.

  Example C:“Donate Money to the Red Cross”

  Everyone in this class should donate five dollars to the Red Cross.

  Step 3: Prepare the Body

  Now that your listeners know your specific purpose, the next step is to present evidence that will convince them to agree with you. Your audience analysis can help at this stage. Review your opinion survey,before deciding how to convince indifferent or hostile listeners.

  Often, people are indifferent about a topic because they do not see how it relates to them. Insgroupsto persuade listeners with this attitude, you must convince them that your topic is interesting, important, and relevant to them.

  Example A

  One student wanted to persuade the class to buy water-purification systems. According to this speaker’s opinion survey, his classmates were indifferent to this topic because they had never given it any thought and didn’t believe it was important. However, he found a newspaper story claiming that the quality of water in their community was the worst in the United States. In the article, doctors warned that drinking this water could increase the risk of contracting cancer.

  Example B

  One student gave a speech entitled“Casino Gambling Should Be Legal in Miami.”After doing her audience analysis, she found that her classmates were indifferent to her topic for several reasons. Some students said they don’t gamble, while some international students said they will only live in Miami for a couple of years. The speaker explained that casino gambling would help the city’s finances, so a proposed sales tax increase would not be necessary. If the sales tax weren’t increased, prices in all stores and restaurants would be lower. Then, everyone (gamblers and no gamblers, permanent residents, and students on temporary visas) would benefit.

  Hostile listeners are those who completely disagree with your opinion or belief. Insgroupsto persuade such listeners, you need to learn their reasons for disagreeing with you and convince them that these reasons are not valid.

  Example A

  One student wanted to persuade the class to donate blood to a hospital blood bank. According to this student’s audience analysis, there were two reasons why his classmates didn’t want to be blood donors.

  One reason was that they were afraid of catching a disease from a dirty hypodermic needle. To refute this reason, the student interviewed the nurse in charge of the hospital blood bank, who explained that individually wrapped and sterilized needles are used for every blood donor and thrown away after each use. Therefore, it is impossible to catch a disease from a dirty needle.

  Another reason was that some students didn’t have cars and thought it was too much trouble to get to the hospital. To refute this reason, the speaker explained that it is very easy to get to the hospital because a bus goes from campus directly to the hospital every fifteen minutes, and the hospital offers a free transportation service to all blood donors.

  Example B

  One student gave a speech entitle“Capital Punishment Should Be Legal throughout the United States.”This student’s audience analysis showed that his classmates strongly disagreed with his claim for several reasons.

  One reason was that some believe that capital punishment does not reduce crime. To refute this reason, the student presented evidence that there are fewer murders committed in states and also quoted a law enforcement expert who stated that criminals are less likely to commit murder if they fear the death penalty.

  Step 4: Prepare a Summary

  An effective persuasive speech includes a summary of the evidence presented. This will remind your audience of why they should agree with you. The example below show how evidence was summarized in two speeches.

  Example A:“Donate Blood to a Hospital Blood Bank”

  I’m sure you now realize that you should donate blood.

  Ⅰ.It’s rewarding and worthwhile.

  A. Think of a dying person whose life you might save.

  B. Think of the great personal satisfaction you’ll have.

  Ⅱ. It’s perfectly safe and painless.

  A. Donating blood doesn’t hurt a bit.

  B. There is no chance of catching any kind of disease.

  Ⅲ. It’s very convenient.

  A. It will only take a few minutes of your time.

  B. Free round-trip transportation to the hospital is available.

  Example B:“Casino Gambling Should Be Legal in Miami”

  As you can now see, legalizing casino gambling in Miami would greatly benefit you and all residents of the city.

  Ⅰ. A proposed sales tax increase will not be necessary.

  A. This will keep prices you pay in restaurants lower.

  B. This will keep prices you pay in retail stores lower.

  Ⅱ. Miami’s finances will improve.

  A. More money will be spent to improve the roads you use.

  B. More money will be spent to improve the public parks and beaches you enjoy.

  C. More money will be spent on educational materials for children in public schools.

  Step 5: Prepare Memorable Concluding Remarks

  The last part of your speech to prepare is the conclusion. The conclusion of a persuasive speech should remind the audience why they should change a belief, opinion, or behavior. An effective way to do this is to make them think about the future and to remind them that the best way to redirect the future is to take some type of action.

  Example A

  You might be healthy now, but think about your health in a few months or in several years. We all know that the water in this city can kill us! With a home purification system, you’ll never worry about drinking polluted water again. For less than seventy-five dollars, turn your kitchen faucet /into/ an ocean of fresh water. Buy a water purification system for your sink today!

  Example B

  Be the best you can be! Just think - in a few short weeks a beautiful, slender, athletic body can be yours. Heads will turn as you walk down the street. Be sure to make an appointment at your local health club right away!

 

 OUTLINING A PERSUA-SIVE SPEECH

  The outline that follows shows how one student outlined a persuasive speech. Notice how it includes the following components:

  1. Opener building on areas of agreement

  2. Statement of purpose

  3. Body

  4. Summary

  5. Memorable concluding remarks

  Also, notice how transitions have been used to connect the components.

  OPENER BUILDING ON AREAS OF AGREEMENT

  Have you ever wanted to go on vacation somewhere exciting but worried that it would cost too much or that you might be bored once you got there? We all have these concerns when planning a vacation.

  We all want adventure, excitement, great food, and nice hotels without spending a lot of money!

  STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

  Plan a trip to Chengde, China, for your next vacation!

  TRANSITION: Many of you may be worried that such a vacation will cost too much. You will be amazed to learn this is not the case.

  BODY

  Ⅰ. A trip to Chengde, China, is very inexpensive.

  A. Many airlines offer off-season discounts.

  B. The best hotel costs twenty-five dollars a night.

  C. You can eat three delicious meals a day for less than five dollars.

  D. Local transportation is extremely inexpensive.

  a. A rickshaw anywhere in the city costs fifteen cents.

  b. You can rent a bicycle for pennies a day.

  TRANSITION: You might think that Chengde is ugly and you’ll be bored there. Let me assure you that this is not the case.

  Ⅱ. There are many things to see and do in Chengde.

  A. See the most beautiful and unusual temples in the world.

  a. The Lamaist Temple of Universal Tranquility

  It was built by Emperor Qian Long in the eighteenth century.

   It has the largest wooden image of the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy, Guanyin.

  b. The Temple of Universal Joy

   It was built in 1766.

  It has an incredible double terrace.

   It has a fabulous double roof of yellow tiles.

  c. The eighteenth-century Temple of Universal Love

  B. Photograph the most beautiful gardens in China.

  C. Rent a rowboat and ride on one of Chengde’s magnificent lakes.

  D. Go on a shopping spree.

  a. Visit a unique shop for department store.

  b. Chengde is famous for several products.

  Silk

   Furs

   Wood carvings

   Handmade Oriental rugs

  TRANSITION: Some people fear getting ill and not finding a doctor if they travel to a small city in China. This should not be a concern either.

  Ⅲ. Medical care in China is excellent.

  A. Chinese hospitals and doctors provide excellent care.

  B. There are many local clinics in all cities.

  C. A variety of medicines are available.

  a. Standard antibiotics

  b. Herbal medicines

  SUMMAY

  I hope I’ve convinced you to make your next vacation Chengde, China. Remember:

  Ⅰ.Chengde is a very inexpensive place to visit.

  Ⅱ. You’ll never get bored because there is so much to see and do.

  Ⅲ. In the unlikely event you need it, excellent medical care is available.MEMORABLE CONCLUDING REMARKS

  You can stand on the same spotswheresChina’s most powerful emperors have stood. Your eyes will see the same green mountains they saw. The spectacular scenery, cool breezes, and striking sounds will amaze you. You will find your trip was worth the time and money you spent to get there. So, see your travel agent and make plans to visit Chengde, China, soon!

竹影无风 2004-03-31 21:14
第六章: 说服性演讲
 

 什么是说服性演讲

  说服性演讲在我们身边到处都是,只要演讲的目的是说服别人改变他们的感受、信仰或行为就是说服性演讲。销售人员试图说服人们购买产品,政治家试图说服人们投他一票,教师则试图说服学生选他的历史课,都是在进行说服性演讲。

  什么时候我们要做说服性演讲呢?事实上每时每刻都有。当我们向一个朋友借钱时,让老师给我们的成绩更高时,试图劝说兄弟姐妹减肥时,或说服父母为我们买东西时,我们的目标都是要改变或影响他人。

  在本章,你将学到如何做一篇说服性的演讲。

 

 准备开场白、正文和结尾

  第一步:在共同的领域上准备开头

  说服性演讲的开场白很重要。为了说服听众同意你的观点,首先很有必要让他们信任你,并以为你与他们的想法是相同的。最好的方法是在你演讲的开始部分谈论一些共同的领域。你可以这样开头:

  共同的目的(我们都想得到生活中相同的基本事物)

  共同的问题(我们都关注这个特殊问题)

  共同的经历(我们都知道它像是……)

  例A:“高速公路速限太高”

  我们都知道有一些人的朋友或家庭是在高速公路的车祸中受伤或丧生的,一般我们都在新闻中读到或听到这些悲剧。我们都想过得长久、幸福、健康,不想为可能发生的事故而担心,没有人想在每次进入车内时忧虑自己是否能安全到达终点。

  例B:“死刑应当合法化”

  我敢确定这里的每一个人都是关注我们社区的犯罪案件,我们都知道晚上独自外出,或者甚至是到黑暗的停车场去取车都不是很安全的,我们想在自己的家里、车上和街上都感到安全,我们都期待看到犯罪数量的减少。

  例C:“为红十字协会捐款”

  尽管我们以为许多事情都是理所应当的,我们很幸运,有华美的衣服可以穿着,但在这个世界上有些地方却没有这么幸运,在每块陆地上都有许多饥饿和无家可归的人。如果你们知道能够做些什么,你们中的大部分都会愿意帮助这些比你们不幸的人的。

  第二步:准备一个对目标的陈述

  现在你已经向听众表明你是一个明智的人,与他们有共同的价值和信仰,下一步应当清楚地阐明你演讲的具体目的。

  例A:“高速公路速限太高”

  美国高速公路的最高速限应当是每小时50英里。

  例B:“死刑应当合法化”

  将死刑合法化可以帮助防止犯罪。

  例C:“向红十字协会捐款”

  班上的每个人都应向红十字会捐5美元。

  第三步:准备正文

  现在你的听众知道了你的具体目标,下一步要拿出证据来说服他们同意你的观点。对听众的分析调整可能会对你有帮助。在决定如何说服冷漠或敌对的听众之前,再回顾一下你的意见调查表。

  人们对你的主题表现冷漠经常是因为他们觉得与自己无关,对这种人,你必须说服他们你的主题很有趣,很重要,并与他们有关。

  例A:

  一个学生想说服班上的同学购买纯净水系统,但根据他做的意见调查,同学们对这个主题很冷淡,因为他们从没想过并且也不相信那很重要。然而,他在报纸上看到一条消息说他所在的社区的水质是全美国最差的,在这篇文章中,医生们提醒大家:饮用这种水会增加得癌的危险。

  例B:

  一个学生做的演讲的题目是“赌场赌博在迈阿密应当合法”。在做了受众调查后,她发现班上的同学由于几种原因而对她的主题不感兴趣。一些同学说他们不赌博,而一些外国同学则称他们只在迈阿密住了没几年。演讲者解释说赌场赌博会有助于城市的经济,就不再需要增加销售税。如果销售税不增加,所有商店和饭店的价格就会更低。那么,每一个人(赌博者和不赌者,永久居民和拿着临时签证的同学)都将受益。

  敌对的听众是那些完全不赞同你的观点或信仰的人,为了说服这些听众,你要了解他们不同意你的理由,并说服他们这些理由是没有根据的。

  例A:

  一个学生想说服班上的人向医院血库献血,根据他的受众调查,有两个原因使他的同学不想做献血者。

  一个原因是他们害怕因为用了脏的注射器针头而得病。为了反驳这种理由,演讲者采访了医院血库的护士,她解释说针头都是独立包装并消过毒的,每个针头用完一次就被扔掉了。因此,由于脏针头而染病是不可能的。

  另一个原因是许多学生都没有汽车,他们觉得去医院太麻烦了。为了反驳这个原因,演讲者说明到医院很容易,因为有一辆公车是从学校直接到医院的,每15分钟发一次,并且医院也为所有献血者提供免费的交通服务。

  例B:

  一个学生的演讲题目是“死刑应在美国合法化”。他的受众调查显示他的同学因几种原因而不赞同他的意见。

  一个原因是有些人不相信死刑会减少犯罪。为了驳斥这一理由,演讲的学生举出一些证据,在一些实施死刑的州有较少的犯罪,并且引用法律专家的话:罪犯如果害怕被判死刑,他就较少会去杀人。

  第四步:准备一个总结

  一篇有效的说服性演讲包括一个对所举证据的总结,这会提醒你的听众他们为什么要赞同你。下面的例子表明在两篇演讲中证据是如何被总结的。

  例A:“向医院血库献血”

  我相信你现在意识到你应该献血了。

  Ⅰ.你会得到回报,并且这么做值得。

  A.想想你会挽救一个垂死病人的生命。

  B.想想你将会拥有巨大的个人满足感。

  Ⅱ.它完全是安全的,并且不会疼痛。

  A.献血不会有一点损害。

  B.没有感染任何疾病的可能。

  Ⅲ.它很方便。

  A.它只需占用你几分钟的时间。

  B.免费的到医院的交通服务。

  例B:“赌场赌博在迈阿密应当合法”

  现在你看到了,使赌博在迈阿密合法化会给你和全城的居民都带来巨大的利益。

  Ⅰ.不需要增加销售税。

  A.这会使你在饭店的花费降低。

  B.这会使你在零售店的花费降低。

  Ⅱ.迈阿密的经济会改善。

  A.更多的钱会用来改善道路。

  B.更多的钱会用来改善公共公园和你喜欢的海滩。

  C.更多的钱会用来改善公共学校里孩子们的教学设备。

  第五步:准备一个让人印象深刻的结尾

  你要准备的最后一部分是结尾,它会提醒听众他们为什么要改变信仰、观点或行为。最有效的途径是让他们想到未来,并提示他们改变未来最好的方式是采取某种行为。

  例A:

  你或许现在很健康,但想想几个月后或几年以后,我们都知道这座城市的水会致我们于死地!如果有了家庭纯净水系统,你将不再担心会再次喝到污染的水,只需少于75美元的钱便可使你厨房的水龙头变成新鲜水源的海洋。今天就去为你的水池买一套纯净水系统吧。

  例B:

  做最好的你!只要想想看--在很短的几个星期后你就会拥有漂亮、苗条、健美的身体了。你走在街上回头率会很高的,记住马上去你当地的健身俱乐部登记吧。


概述说服性演讲

  下面的大纲表明了一篇说服性演讲的轮廓,注意下面的要素是如何包含其中的:

  1.在共同领域上的开头

  2.目标陈述

  3.正文

  4.总结

  5.印象深刻的结尾部分

  同样要注意是如何使用过渡把上述要素联在一起。

  1.共同领域上的开头

  你曾经计划去一个令人兴奋的地方度假,但又担心要花太多钱或是你可能一旦到了那儿又会厌烦吗?当我们计划假期时,总有这些顾虑。

  我们都想不花太多钱便得到奇遇、兴奋、美味的食品和舒适的旅馆!

  2.目标陈述

  为你的下个假期计划去中国承德旅行吧。

  过渡:你们可能会担心这种假期会花费很多,但你们会惊喜地发现并不是这样的。

  3.正文

  Ⅰ.到中国承德的旅行很便宜。

  A.许多航空公司都提供淡季打折。

  B.最好的旅店每晚只需25美元。

  C.每天你可以花少于5美元的钱吃到美味的三餐。

  D.当地的交通也很便宜。

  a.市里随处可见的人力车只需15美分。

  b.你可以租用自行车,每天几美分。

  过渡:你或许以为承德很丑陋,你在那儿会感到厌烦,让我向你保证事实决不是这样。

  Ⅱ.在承德有很多东西可看,很多事情可做。

  A.观赏世界上最美丽、最非凡的寺庙。

  a.喇嘛的普宁寺

  它是18世纪乾隆皇帝修建的。

  在其中有最大的观音菩萨木像。

  b.普乐寺

  建于1766年。

  它有惊人的双层梯形建筑。

  它有美妙的琉璃双层屋顶。

  c. 18世纪的普慈寺

  B.拍摄中国最美的园林。

  C.租一条游艇饱览湖景。

  D.购物狂欢。

  a.参观特别的店铺。

  b.承德的几种物产很有名。

  丝绸毛皮木雕漂亮的东方地毯

  过渡:有些人担心如果他们在中国的小城市生了病会找不到医生,这也是没必要忧虑的。

  Ⅲ.中国的医务也很不错。

  A.中国医院的医生会提供周到的照顾。

  B.在所有的城市都有许多当地的诊所。

  C.多种药物可供选择。

  a.一般的抗生药

  b.草药

  4.总结

  我希望我已经说服你们下次假期到中国的承德来。记住:

  Ⅰ.承德是一个不需花很多钱的地方。

  Ⅱ.你不会感到厌烦,因为这儿有很多可看可做的事物。

  Ⅲ.即使你生病,优质的医务随时提供。

  5.印象深刻的结尾

  你可以站在中国最强大的君主站过的地方,你会看到他们曾看到的相同景观。壮观的景象、清凉的微风以及清晰的声音都将会使你惊喜。你会发现这趟旅行真正的有所值。所以,赶快到旅行社去计划你的承德之行吧。

竹影无风 2004-04-01 20:25
7: Effective Listening

 A PSYCHOLOGY PROFESSOR

  A Psychology Professor had dedicated his life to teaching and worked hard to prepare interesting lectures, yet he found his student sitting through his talks with glass-eyed expressions. To learn what was wrong, and also find out what was on his students-minds if they were not focusing on psychology, he would, without warning, fire a blank from a gun and then ask his students to record their thoughts at the instant they heard the shot. Here is what he found:

  20 percent were pursuing erotic thoughts or sexual fantasies. 20 percent were reminiscing about something or thinking about lunch.

 

 STAGES IN EFFECTIVE LISTENING

  Listening is the process of creating meaning from verbal and nonverbal messages. When we listen,we hear words and try to make sense of what we hear. Listening involves selecting, attending, understanding, and remembering. Let’s look at each of these four stages of the listening process in greater detail.

  1. Selecting

  Stop reading this book for a moment and take note of the sounds you hear. Do you hear the whir of an air conditioner or furnace, the wind, a ticking clock, voices, a car, a train, or a plane? You have the ability to select what you will listen to. Instead of listening to the noises around you, you can read this book and concentrate on the ideas in it, or you can focus on your own thoughts. When the time comes to deliver your speech to an audience, keep in mind that your potential listeners have the same choice. Your job as a speaker is to motivate them to select your message.

  2. Attending

  The sequel to selecting is attending. For most people, the average attention span while listening to someone talk is about eight seconds. When you select a sound, you attend to it; you focus on it. Even though you may pay attention to sound for only a fraction of a second, your mind must be focused on it for listening to occur. One of your key challenges as a public speaker will be to capture and hole the attention of your audience. What helps an audience listen to a message?

  ACTIVITY AND MOVEMENT An audience is more likely to listen to an action-packed message than to one that listlessly lingers on an idea too long. Incorporating meaningful movement /into/ your delivery and using visual aids also help hole an audience’s attention.

  CONCRETE WORDS AND IMAGES Effective speakers use words and images that the audience can visualize. Vividly describing a Shinto marriage ceremony will more likely hold an audience’s attention than will reciting research conclusions about marriage in Japan.

  ISSUES AND EVENTS CLOSE TO AN AUDIENCE To make an audience more concerned about the state of medical care, focus on the problems in the audience’s own community rather than on those in a large city a thousand miles away. People pay attention to what affects them directly.

  FAMILIAR IDEAS AND EVENTS Listeners can more easily summon up an image of something they have already seen than of something totally foreign. Referring to people, places, and events in the community that the audience has seen and heard can focus a listener’s attention.

  NEW, DIFFERENT, OR NOVEL IDEAS, ISSUES, AND EVENTS While this may seem to contradict the previous points, audiences can become intrigued with something new or unseen if you relate it to something that concerns them, their communities, or their families.

  STORIES THAT CREATE SUSPENSE Everyone likes a good story, especially one that keeps listeners on the edge of their seats. Whether the story is true or hypothetical, a well-told yarn can keep listeners tuned in.

  CONFLICT Stories that pit one side against another, and descriptions of opposing ideas and forces in government, religion, or interpersonal relationships foster attention. The Greeks learned long ago that the essential ingredient for a good play, be it comedy or tragedy, is conflict.

  HUMOR A fisherman went /into/ a sporting goods store. The salesperson offered the man a wonderful lure for trout: It had beautiful colors, eight hooks, and looked just like a rare Buckner bug. Finally, the fisherman asked the salesperson,“Do fish really like this thing?”

  “I don’t really know,”admitted the salesperson.“I don’t sell it to fish.”

  The speaker using this story could have simply said,“It’s important to know your audience.”Using a bit of humor makes the point while holding the listener’s attention.

  All of these factors help an audience pay attention. Your job as a speaker is to make sure that you incorporate these factors /into/ your speech, so your audience will not have to work hard to attend to your message.

  3. Understanding

  Boiled down to its essence, communication is the process of making sense out of the world and sharing that sense with others. Understanding is the process of making sense out of our experiences. To understand something, we assign meaning to the stimuli that comes our way.

  Although there is no single theory that explains how people make sense of the world, we do know that you understand what you hear by relating it to something you have already seen or heard. If you are talking about oxymoron’s (a combination of seemingly contradictory words in the same phrase) and your audience does not know what on oxymoron is, the best way to tell them is with an example that draws on their store of knowledge:“Efficient bureaucracy”would probably work. Your job as a speaker is to make sure your audience has the knowledge to understand what you are saying.

  4. Remembering

  How do you know whether someone listened to you or not? Most listening experts believe that you can find out whether someone has listened to you only by testing whether they can remember what they heard. Your geography professor determines how well you understand geography by testing you on the content of his of her lecture. But intentionally or not, the professor is testing your listening skill as well as your knowledge of geography.

  

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE LISTENINGE

  ffective listening is extremely important because you spend so much time listening. In fact, if you measured importance by the time you spend on an activity, listening would be your most important communication activity. Most of your communication time is spent in listening. You will improve your listening if you listen actively, for total meaning, with empathy, and with an open mind.

  1. Listen Actively

  The first step in listening improvement is to recognize that it is not a passive activity. You cannot listen without effort. Listening is a difficult process. In many ways it is more demanding than speaking. In speaking you control the situation; you can talk about what you like in the way you like. In listening, however, you have to follow the pace, the content, and the language of the speaker.

  The best preparation for active listening is to act like an active listener. Recall, for example, how your body almost automatically reacts to important news. Almost immediately you sit up straighter, cock your head toward the speaker, and remain relatively still and quiet. You do this almost reflexively because this is how you listen most effectively. This is not to say that you should be tense and uncomfortable, but only that your body should reflect your active mind. In listening actively:

  - Use the thought-speech time differential effectively. Because your mind can process information faster than the average rate of speech, there is often a time lag. Use this time to summarize the speaker’s thoughts, formulate questions, draw connections between what the speaker says and what you already know.

  - Work at listening. Listening is hard work so be prepared to participate actively. Avoid what James Floyd (1985) calls“the entertainment syndrome,”the expectation to be amused and entertained by a speaker. Combat sources of“noise”as much as possible. Remove distractions or other interferences (newspapers, magazines, stereos) so that your listening task will have less competition.

  - Assume there is value in what the speaker is saying, resist assuming that what you have to say is more valuable than the speaker’s remarks.

  2. Listen for Total Meaning

  The meaning of a message is not only in the words used, it is also in the speaker’s nonverbal behavior. Sweating hands and shaking knees communicate as surely as do words.

  The meanings communicated in a speech will also depend on what the speaker does not say. For example, the speaker who omits references to the homeless or to drugs in a speech on contemporary social problems communicates meaning by these very omission. Exactly what inferences listeners will draw from such omissions will depend on a variety of factors. Some possible inferences might be:

  - the speaker is poorly prepared- the speaker’s research was inadequate- the speaker forgot part of the speech- the speaker is trying to fool the audience by not mentioning this- the speaker is trying to cover up certain issues and thinks we won’t notice- the speaker thinks we are uninformed, stupid, or both

  As a listener, therefore, be particularly sensitive to the meanings that significant omission may communicate. As a speaker,recognize that most inferences that audiences draw from omissions are negative. Most such inferences will reflect negatively on your credibility and on the total impact of the speech. Be careful, therefore, to mention significant issues that the audience expects to be discussed. In listening for total meaning:

  - Focus on both verbal and nonverbal messages. Recognize both consistent and inconsistent“packages”of messages and take these cues as guides for drawing inferences about the meaning the speaker is trying to communicate. Ask questions when in doubt. Listen also to what is omitted.- See the forest, then the trees. Connect the specifics to the speaker’s general theme rather than merely remembering isolated facts and figures.- Balance your attention between the surface and the underlying meanings. Do not disregard the literal (surface) meaning of the speech in your attempt to uncover the more hidden (deep) meanings.

  3. Listen with an Open Mind

  Listening with an open mind is difficult. It is not easy to listen to arguments attacking your cherished beliefs. It is not easy to listen to statements condemning what you fervently believe. Listening often stops when such remarks are made. Yet it is in these situations that it is particularly important to continue listening openly and fairly. In listening with an open mind:

  - Avoid prejudging. Delay both positive and negative evaluation until you have fully understood the intention and the content of the message being communicated.- Avoid filtering out difficult, unpleasant, or undesirable messages.

  - Avoid distorting messages through oversimplification or leveling, the tendency to eliminate details and to simplify complex messages to make them easier to remember.- Recognize your own biases; they may interfere with accurate listening and cause you to distort message reception through assimilation, the tendency to interpret what you hear (or think you hear) in terms of your own biases, prejudices, and expectations. Biases may also lead to sharpening - when an item of information takes on increased importance because it seems to confirm your stereotypes or prejudices.

竹影无风 2004-04-01 20:26
第七章: 有效倾听
 

 一个心理学教授

  一个心理学教授花费一生的时间来教授并致力于如何准备有趣的演讲,但他却发现听他课的学生常常两眼发直,注意力不集中。为了搞清楚到底哪儿出了问题,并想知道学生们如果不能专注于心理学,那他们到底在想些什么。他在完全没有警告的情况下突然开了一枪,然后他让学生们记下他们在听到枪响的那一刻的想法。下面是他发现的结果:20%的人正在做某种性幻想;20%的人正在回忆往事或正在想他们的午餐。

  

有效倾听的阶段

  听是一种从有文字和无文字的信息创造出含义的过程。当我们听的时候,我们将听到的文字变得有意义,倾听包括选择、倾听、理解和记忆。下面让我们具体来看这四个阶段:

  1.选择阶段

  停止阅读本书,用你的耳朵仔细听一下细微的声响,你听到空调、火炉、微风、滴答的钟声、话语、汽车、火车或飞机的声音了吗?你有能力选择你要听的东西,不再听这些你周围的噪音。你重新阅读本书并关注其中的观点或关注你自己的想法,当轮到你做演讲的时候,要记住你的潜在听众与你有同样的选择,作为演讲者你要做的是刺激他们选择你的信息。

  2.注意阶段

  选择的下一步是倾听。对许多人来说,听某人演讲的一般注意力集中时间为8秒钟。你选择了一种声音后,便会去倾听去关注它,即使你可能对一种声音只关注短短的1秒钟,但你也必须关注它,因为倾听已经发生了。作为演讲者你面临的最大挑战是抓住听众的注意力,什么可以帮助听众倾听信息?

  (1)行为和动作:听众更喜欢听到有动作包装的演讲,而不爱听那些无精打采地在一

  (2)个问题上徘徊不前的演讲,有意义的动作和可视的辅助物能够帮你抓住听众注意力。

  (2)生动具体的单词和比喻:有影响力的演讲者使用那些让听众有想像空间的单词和比喻,生动地描述日本神道婚典要比单纯地引述日本婚姻调查结论更能抓住听众注意力。

  (3)与听众接近的事件和问题:为了让听众更加关注国家的医疗状况,把聚焦点放在听众本社区的问题要比放在几千英里外的一个大城市要好得多,人们总是注意那些会有直接影响的事物。

  (4)熟悉的思想和事件:听众很容易便会想到的是他们曾亲眼见过的事物,而不是陌生的事物,引用听众所在社区的人、地点和事件作为例证会吸引听众注意力。

  (5)新鲜,与众不同的事件问题:这点看起来与前面几点是相矛盾的,但听众很容易对那些与他们本身、他们的社区或他们的家庭有关的新鲜事物感兴趣。

  (6)造悬念的故事:每个人都喜欢好听的故事,特别是那种引人入胜的故事。不管它是真实的还是虚构的,一桩好听的奇谈总能让听众认真倾听。

  (7)冲突:故事中两方的对抗,以及对政府、宗教或人与人之间相反意见和力量的冲突总能吸引注意力。希腊在很早以前就已经知道,一出戏剧,不管它是悲剧还是喜剧,冲突都是必备要素。

  (8)幽默:一个渔民去了一家体育用品商店,售货员向他推荐了一种极好的钓鲑鱼的诱饵:它有美丽的色彩,有八个钩,看上去就像鲑鱼爱吃的一种小虫。最后,这个渔民问售货员:“那些鱼真的喜欢这种诱饵吗?”

  “我真的不知道”,售货员回答,“我没向鱼卖过它。”

  演讲者用这个故事想简单地说明“了解你的听众是很重要的。”在幽默的同时抓住了听众的注意力。

  所有这些要素都有助于吸引听众的注意。作为演讲者,你的任务是将这些要素用于你的演讲中,让你的听众不需要太费劲便能倾听你的信息。

  3.理解阶段

  从实质上讲,交流就是认识世界并与他人分享的过程。理解是从经验获知意义的过程,为了理解,我们给刺激我们的事物赋予意义。

  尽管还没有一种理论可以解释人们是如何认识世界的,但我们都知道你是通过把你听到的东西与你以前听到的联系在一起来理解它的。如果你在谈论矛盾修饰法(在同一个词组中看起来矛盾的单词的组合),而你的听众不明白它是什么,最好的办法是用他们已有的知识举个例子,比如“有效的官僚作风”。作为演讲人,你要确保你的听众所拥有的知识足以理解你的演讲。

  4.记忆阶段

  你怎样才能知道一个人是否在听你的演讲呢?许多专家认为你可以通过检测他是否记住了你讲的内容来得到答案。你的地理教授通过测试你对他讲座内容的记忆程度来得知你理解了几分,但不管是不是故意的,教授在测试你地理知识的同时也测试了你的倾听技巧。


有效倾听的原则

  由于你花费很多时间用来倾听,有效的倾听是很重要的。事实上,如果以你花费时间的长短来衡量一种行为的重要性,那么倾听或许是你最重要的社会行为了,你大部分的交流时间都花在倾听上。如果你带着感情和开放思维积极主动倾听全部演讲时,你将改善你的倾听效果。

  1.积极倾听

  改善倾听效果的第一步是认识到这不是一种被动的行为,你不能不作努力地倾听。听是一个困难的过程,在很多方面它比说要吃力。在说的过程中,你可以控制局面,可以按自己的方式说话。但在倾听时,你必须跟随着演讲者的速度、内容和语言走。

  积极倾听最好的准备是扮演一个主动的听众。比如,想一想在听到重要新闻时你的身体会自动做出什么反应。你会几乎立刻就坐直了,你的头倾向演讲者,并且保持着相对的静止和安静。你几乎是下意识地这样做,因为这是你最有效收听的方式,但这并不表明你紧张和不舒服,只是你的身体应当反映你主动的思维。在主动倾听时:

  -要有效地使用思想和语气之间的时间差。由于你的思想接受信息要比语言的一般速度快,通常有一个时间间隔。利用这个时间总结一下演讲者的想法,提出问题,并将他所说的与你已知的连在一起。

  - 下些功夫倾听,听是一项困难的工作,所以要准备好主动积极地参与进去。要避免弗洛伊德(1985)所谓的“娱乐并发症”,它表现为期待演讲者使听众发笑、娱乐听众。要尽可能地与“噪音”源做斗争,拿走分散注意力或干扰的物品(报纸、杂志、音响)。这样你的倾听任务才不会受到太多挑战。

  - 要承认演讲者所说的是有价值的,而不要认为你比他强。

  2.倾听全部意思

  不仅仅是文字才有含义,演讲者的行为动作也是有意义的。出汗的手掌心和发抖的双膝与文字一样有含义。

  有时从演讲者没有说的话中也可以看到一些含义,比如:演讲者没有提到现实社会问题中的无家可归和吸毒问题,这也传达了一些含义。听众从这种省略中得到的提示要取决于几种原因,一些可能的原因是:

  - 演讲者准备不充分

  - 演讲者调整做得不够

  - 演讲者忘了演讲的一部分

  - 演讲者想愚弄听众

  - 演讲者试图掩盖一定的问题并认为我们不会注意

  - 演讲者认为我们没有学问,愚蠢

  因此,作为听众要对这种有意义的省略所传达的意思很敏感;作为演讲者则要意识到听众从省略中得到的提示大部分都是负面的,这会影响你的信任度和演讲的整个效果,所以对于听众期待讨论的有意义的问题不要回避。在倾听全部意思时:

  - 要关注文字或无文字的信息,前后一致或前后不连贯的信息,并把这些作为线索来帮助你获取演讲者想要传达之意,有疑问时就提出问题,同样也要注意听什么被省略了。

  - 先见森林,再见树木。将具体事件与演讲者的主题联系起来,不要只记下那些孤立的事实和数据。

  - 将你的注意力在表面与隐含意思之间保持平衡,不要为了揭示隐含意义而忽视了表面的意义。

  3.带着宽容的思想倾听

  带着宽容的思想倾听是很难的。让你保持倾听那些攻击或诋毁你宝贵忠诚的信仰的演讲是很难的。听到这些话语,听的过程可能会中断,尽管在这种情况下,继续公正、宽容地倾听是显得更为重要的。在这个过程中:

  - 要避免过早作出判断,等到你完全理解了演讲的意图和内容后,再作出正面或负面的判断。

  - 要避免将困难的、令人不悦的或不满意的信息筛选出来。

  - 要避免通过过度简化和粗化而曲解信息,不要去掉细节和简化复杂的信息而使它们易于记忆。

  - 意识到你自己的偏见,它们会干扰你的倾听并使你通过同化来错误地接受信息,不要将你听到的(或认为你听到的)以你自己的偏见、歧视和期望来理解,偏见往往会起到加强作用,即你听到的信息看起来会加强你的思维模式或意见。

竹影无风 2004-04-02 21:26
8: Non-Verbal Communication in a Speech

  Visualize yourself in this situation: you are giving a presentation to a customer group. In the room there are about ten people, not including yourself. Sitting at the head of a long conference table is the senior member of the group. She is the decision maker. You begin your presentation and you focus your attention on the boss. After all, she’s the one you have to convince, right?

  As you proceed, you notice that the boss is paying close attention. She is watching you and occasionally, you see her nod her head at you and indicate that you have made a good point.

  You think to yourself:“Hot dog! The boss is on my side!”

  As you continue your presentation, you say something that seems to bother the person sitting mid-table, a few seats down to the left of the boss. This guy is in clear view of the boss at all times. The person reacts, but does not say anything. You don’t notice his reaction because you are so mesmerized by the fact that the boss agrees with you that you can’t take your eyes off her.

  You finish your presentation with a flourish and say:“Well, what do you think?”(You secretly giggle to yourself because you already know the answer. You are going to get the deal and you’re already planning the celebration!)

  In a split second the boss glances over at our friend at mid-table. He looks back at her and gives a single, slight shake of the head. She looks back at you and says:

  “We really appreciate your coming to visit us this morning. We will take what you have to say under consideration and someone will get back to you. Thank you so much for joining us.”

  “Now, what’s next on the agenda?”

  In complete shock your wonder:“What the heck happened!?”

  Here’s what happened:

  You blew it!

  You missed the opportunity!

  They’re not going to ever call you back!

  They just kissed you off!

  You snatched defeat form the jaws of victory!

  How could this have happened? Everything seemed to be going fine! What went wrong?

  Here’s what went wrong:

  You weren’t watching what was going on in the room so you missed the nonverbal dialogue.

  We have learned every procedure to make a successful speech. But you still may have a number of specific questions about enhancing the effectiveness of your delivery. Typical concerns include these:“What do I do with my hands?”“Is it all right to move around while I speak?”“How can I make my voice sound interesting?”While these concerns may seem overwhelming, presenting a well-prepared and well-rehearsed speech is the best antidote to jitters about delivery. To help answer specific questions about presenting a speech, we will consider three major categories of nonverbal behavior that affect delivery: body language, eye contact, facial expression.

 

 BODY LANGUAGE

  Gesture, movement, and posture are the three key attributes of physical delivery, or body language. Your body language will influence whether your audience sees you as credible and competent. It also helps determine whether you successfully gain and hold audience interest. A good public speaker knows how to use effective gestures and maintain an appropriate posture while speaking to an audience.

  1. Functions of Gestures

  If you don’t know what to do with your hands, think about the message you want to communicate. As in ordinary conversation, your hands should simply help emphasize or reinforce your verbal message. Specifically, note the following ways in which your gesture can lend strength to what you have to say: (1) repeating, (2) contradicting, (3) substituting, (4) complementing, (5) emphasizing, and (6) contradicting.

  Repeating. Gestures can help you repeat your verbal message. For example, you can say,“I have three major points to talk about today,”while holding up three fingers. Or you can describe an objects as twelve inches long while holding your hands about a foot apart. Repeating what you say through nonverbal means can reinforce your message.

  Contradicting. Since your audience will sooner believe what you communicate nonverbally than verbally, you need to monitor your gestures to make sure that you are not contradicting what you say. It is difficult to convey an image of control and confidence by using flailing gestures and awkward poses. You dont want to display behavior that will conflict with your intended image or message, not do you want to appear stiff and self-conscious. So the crucial thing to keep in mind while monitoring your own behavior is to stay relaxed.

  Substituting. Not only can your behavior reinforce or contradict what you say, but your gestures can also substitute for your message. Without uttering a word, you can hold up the palm of your hand to calm a noisy crowd. Flashing two fingers to form a V for victory or raising a clenched fist are other common examples of how gestures can substitute for a verbal message.

  Complementing. Gestures can also add further meaning to your verbal message. A politician who declines to comment on a reporter’s question while holding up her hands to augment her verbal refusal, uses her gesture to complement or provide further meaning to her verbal message.

  Emphasizing. You can give emphasis to what you say by using an appropriate gesture. A shaking fist or a slicing gesture with one or both hands help emphasize a message. So does pounding your fist /into/ the palm of your hand. Other gestures can be less dramatic but still lend emphasis to what you say. You should try to allow your gestures to arise from the content of your speech and your emotions.

  Regulating. Gestures can also regulate the exchange between you and your audience. If you want the audience to respond to a question, you can extend both palms to invite a response. During a question-and-answer session, your gestures can signal when you want to talk and when you want to invite others to do so.

  2. Using Gestures Effectively

  Turn-of-the-century elocutionists taught their students how to gesture to communicate specific emotions or messages. Today teachers of speech act differently. Rather than prescribe gestures for specific situations, they feel that it is more useful to offer suitable criteria (standards) by which to judge effective gestures, regardless of what is being said. Here are some guidelines that you can think about when working on your delivery.

  Stay natural. Gestures should be relaxed, not tense or rigid. Your gestures should flow with your message. Avoid sawing or slashing through the air with your hands unless you are trying to emphasize a particularly dramatic point. The pounding fist or raised forefinger in hectoring style will not necessarily enhance the quality of your performance.

  Be definite. Gestures should appear definite rather than as accidental brief jerks of your hands or arms. If you want to gesture, go ahead and gesture. Avoid minor hand movements that will be masked by the lectern.

  Use gestures that are consistent with your message. Gestures should be appropriate for the verbal content of your speech. If you are excited, gesture more vigorously. But remember that predeceased gestures that do not naturally arise from what you are trying to say are likely to appear awkward and stilted.

  Vary your gestures. Strive for variety and versatility in your use of gesture. Try not to use just one hand or one all-purpose gesture. Gestures can be used for a variety of purposes, such as enumerating, pointing, describing, and symbolizing an idea or concept (such as clasping your hands together to suggest agreement or a coming-together process).

  Don’t overdo it. Gestures should be unobtrusive; your audience should focus not on the beauty or appropriateness of your gestures but on your message. Your purpose is to communicate a message to your audience, not to perform for your listeners in such a way that your delivery receives more attention than your message.

  Coordinate gestures with what you say. Gestures should be well times to coincide with your verbal message. When you announce that you have three major points, your gesture of enumeration should occur simultaneously with your utterance of the word three. It would be poor timing to announce that you have three points, pause for a second or two, and then hold up three fingers.

  Make your gestures appropriate to your audience and situation. Gestures must be adapted to the audience. In more formal speaking situations, particularly when speaking to a large audience, bolder, more sweeping, and more dramatic gestures are appropriate. A small audience in a less formal setting calls for less formal gestures.

  In summary, keep one important principle in mind: Use gestures that work best for you. Don’t try to be someone that you are not. Jesse Jackson’s style may work for him, but you are not Jesse Jackson. Your gestures should fit your personality. It may be better to use no gestures - just comfortably put your hands at your side - rather than to use awkward, distracting gestures or to try to counterfeit someone else’s gestures. Your nonverbal delivery should flow from your message.

 

 EYE CONTACT

  Of all of the delivery features discussed in this chapter, the most important one in a public speaking situation for North Americans is eye contact. Eye contact with your audience opens communication, makes you more believable, and keeps your audience interested. Each of these functions contributes to the success of your delivery. Eye contact also provides you with feedback about how your speech is coming across.

  Most audiences in the United States prefer that you establish eye contact with them even before you open your speech with your attention-catching introduction. When it’s your time to speak, walk to the lectern (or the front of the audience if you’re not using a lectern), pause briefly, and look at your audience before you say anything. Eye contact nonverbally sends the message,“I am interested in you; tune me in; I have something I want to share with you.”You should have your opening sentence well enough in mind that you can deliver it without looking at your notes or away from your listeners.

  Try to establish eye contact with the entire audience, not just with the front row or only one or two people. Look to the back and front and from side to side of your audience, selecting an individual to focus on and then moving on to someone.

 

 FACIAL EXPRESSION

  Media experts today doubt that Abraham Lincoln would have survived as a politician in our appearance-conscious age of telegenic politicians. His facial expression, according to those who saw him, seemed wooden and unvaried.

  Your face plays a key role in expressing your thoughts, and especially your emotions and attitudes. Your audience sees your face before they hear what you are going to say. Thus, you have an opportunity to set the emotional tone for your message before you start speaking. We are not advocating that you adopt a phony smile that looks insincere and plastered on your face, but a pleasant facial expression helps establish a positive emotional climate. Your facial expression should naturally vary to be consistent with your message. Present somber news with a more serious expression. To communicate interest in your listeners, keep your expression alert and friendly.

  Although we are technically capable of producing over 250,000 different facial expressions, we most often express only three primary emotions: happiness, anger, blend of expressions rather than communicator of a single emotion. According to cross-cultural studies by social psychologist Paul Ekman, the facial expressions are able to read your emotional expressions clearly. When you rehearse your speech, note whether you are allowing your face to help communicate the emotional tone of your thoughts.

竹影无风 2004-04-02 21:31
第八章: 演讲中的非语言交流
  想像你处在这样一种情境中:你正在对一个顾客组做演讲,你面对着10个人,不包括你自己。坐在长会议桌首席的是这个组的领导,她是决策制定人。你开始了讲演并以这个老板为焦点,毕竟,她是你必须要说服的人,对吗?

  在你演讲的过程中,你注意到老板的注意力很集中。她注视着你,并时不时地点一下头,这表明你的观点很不错。

  你暗暗想到:“噢!老板同意我的看法。”

  你继续着,你说的一些东西似乎触犯了坐在桌子中部与老板相隔几个座位的一个人,他总在老板的视野之内,这个人虽有反应但却没说什么,你也不在意他的反应,因为你已经着迷于老板对你的赞同,你是不能把视线从她身上移走的。

  你做了精彩的结尾,然后问道:“好吧,你们怎么认为?”(你窃笑着,因为你已经知道答案了,你会做成生意并已在计划庆祝活动了!)

  老板侧眼看了几秒钟坐在中部的那个人,他仅仅只做了一个轻微的摇头动作,然后,老板对你说:

  “我们很感激你今早的到来,我们会考虑你的意见的,有人会回复你。感谢你参加我们的会议。

  “下面一项是什么?”

  你很惊讶并想知道:“到底发生了什么?”

  下面就是发生的事实:

  你把演讲搞砸了!

  你错过了机会!

  他们不会再给你打电话!

  他们解雇了你!

  你与成功擦肩而过!

  怎么会这样?一切都进行得很好,哪儿出错了?

  下面就是你的错误所在:

  你没有观察房间里发生的一切,所以你错失了非语言交流。

  我们已经学到了做一个成功演讲的每个步骤,但你仍然会有许多关于如何加强你发言有效性的疑问。典型的问题有:“我的手该放在哪里?”“发言时走来走去好吗?”“我怎样才能使自己的声音听起来更有趣?”这些问题看起来是无穷无尽的,充分的准备和排练才是医治演讲紧张的特效药。为了帮助解答演讲的具体问题,我们将影响发言的无文字行为分为三大类型:肢体语言、眼神交流、面部表情。

 

 肢体语言

  手势、走动和姿势是肢体语言的三个主要因素,你的肢体语言影响到你的听众是否认为你是可信的、能干的,它还有助于你是否能成功吸引并抓住听众的兴趣。一个优秀的公共演说家知道在演讲的过程中如何有效地使用手势和姿势。

  1手势的作用

  如果你不知道自己的手该怎样做,考虑一下你想传达的信息,就像在日常交谈中,你的手用来帮助强调或加强文字语言信息。具体地来说,在以下方面你的手势会对你有所帮助:(1)重复,(2)冲突,(3)代替,(4)补充,(5)强调,(6)规范。

  (1)重复。手势有助于你重复语言信息。例如,你可以说:“今天我要说的主要有三点,”同时举起三根手指。或者你描述一个物体有12英寸长时,可以用你的手比划出大概长度。通过手势重复你的话会加强你的信息。

  (2)冲突。由于听众会更直接明白你无语言的信息,所以你要时刻调节自己的手势以确定没有与你说的话发生冲突,使用甩动的手势和笨拙的姿势很难塑造有控制能力、自信的形象。你不会想要展示那些与你的理想形象和信息相冲突的行为动作,也不想表现得僵硬和羞怯,所以最重要的一点是在监督自己手势的同时要保持轻松状态。

  (3)代替。你的动作不仅会加强信息或与信息冲突,它还可以代替你的信息,不用说话。你举起两个手掌便可以平息噪乱的人群,举起两个手指做成“V”字状或举起一个紧握的拳头是可以代替成功意思的手势。

  (4)补充。手势还可以给你的语言信息增加更多的含义。一个政治家在谢绝回答记者提问时会举起双手,使用这种手势来补充或提供比语言信息更多的含义。

  (5)强调。你可以通过使用适当的手势来强调你要说的话,一只摇动的拳头、一只或两只手、一个切下去的手势都有助于强调信息,还有一种将拳头击手掌的手势也可起到相同作用。其他的手势虽然没有这么戏剧化但也会加强你的信息,你应当根据你演讲的内容和感情来使用手势。

  (6)规范。手势还可以规范你与听众之间的交流,如果你想让听众回答问题,你可以伸开两个手掌欢迎回答。在这一问一答的环节中,当你想发言或想让别人发言时,你的手势可以起到信号作用。

  2有效地使用手势

  本世纪(20世纪)之初的雄辩家教他们的学生如何通过手势来传递特定的感情和信息。今天,讲演老师做的各有不同,不仅仅要规定特定情境的手势,他们还以为有必要提供一种标准来判断手势是否有效。下面是一些对你发言中手势运用的指导:

  保持自然状态。手势要轻松,不要紧张或僵硬。手势应当与信息保持一致,除非你是在强调一个特别戏剧化的要点,否则不要用手在空中乱划乱砍。砸拳或竖起食指的手势带有威吓的含义,它对提高你表演的质量是无意义的。

  要明确清晰。手势必须要明确,不能看起来像是你的手或胳膊的暂时抽筋。如果你想做手势就尽管去做,避免做那种被演讲台掩盖的微小的手的动作。

  使用与你的信息一致的手势。手势应当与演讲的语言内容相吻合。如果你很兴奋,手势要做得更有力一些,但要记住如果不根据你话语的意思而过早地做手势会让你看起来尴尬和僵硬。

  使你的手势多样化。使用手势时追求多样性和多面性,不要只使用一只手或只做单一的手势。做手势的目的多种多样,比如列举、强调、描述和表达一种想法或观点(如互握双手表示一种赞同或一种需要合作的过程)。

  不要滥用手势。手势不应该太引人注目,你的听众关注的并不是你的手势是否美观或合适,而是你的信息。你的目的是向听众传递信息,而不是让你的表演得到比信息更多的关注。

  使用时与你的演讲相协调。手势应当适时地与你的语言信息相配合,当你说到有三点时,你列举的动作应当在你说到“三”的时候同时做出。如果你说完三点后又停顿了一两秒才竖起三根手指,那就糟糕了。

  使手势适合于你的听众和当时的情境。手势必须适合听众。在许多正式的演讲场合,特别是向一大群听众演讲时,更大胆、更大幅度的、更戏剧性的手势比较合适,而非正式情境下小范围内的听众则适合较为不正式的手势。

  总的来说,记住一条重要的原则:使用那些最有效的适合你的手势,不要试图让自己成为另外一个人。耶西·杰克逊的风格或许会对你有用,但你毕竟不是耶西·杰克逊。你的手势应与你的性格相配,或许不做任何手势--只是轻松地将手放在两边--要比做笨拙、令人分心的手势或模仿别人的手势好得多。你的手势应根据你的演讲内容而做。

 

 眼神交流

  在本章讨论过的所有演讲特点中,对北美人来说,在公共演讲场所最重要的一点是眼神的交流。与听众的眼神交流开拓了交流局面,使你更可靠,并保持了听众的兴趣。这些作用每一个都有助于你演讲的成功。眼神交流还可以让你得到观众对你演讲效果的反馈。

  许多美国的听众更喜欢在你开始演讲之前便与他们进行眼神的交流。当轮到你演讲时,走上讲台(如果没有讲台就走到听众的前面),暂停一下,在讲话之前先看一下你的听众,眼神交流无声地传送信息。“我对你们很感兴趣,请听我说,我有一些东西想和你们分享。”你应该记住你的开场白句子,这样你才能不需要看笔记或将视线移离听众便开始发言。

  要与所有的听众都建立眼神的交流,而不仅仅是盯着前排或一两个听众。前后左右地环视你的听众,选择一个人作为焦点,然后再换另一个人。

  

面部表情

  媒体专家们对亚伯拉罕·林肯如果活到今天是否成为一个适于广播电视的政治家表示怀疑,见过他的人都说他的面部表情看起来很僵硬并保持不变。

  你的脸在表达你的思想特别是你的感情和态度时扮演着重要的角色。你的听众在听到你说话之前看到你的脸,所以,你就有机会在讲话前给你的演讲确定一种有感情的语调。我们不提倡你采用那种看似不真诚或做作的虚伪的微笑,但令人愉快的面部表情则会帮你营造一个主动的感情的氛围。你的面部表情应当自然地与信息相配合地作出相应改变,说到严肃的问题时要有更严肃的表情,与听众谈判兴趣时则要保持机敏、友好的表情。

  尽管我们能够技术地做出250,000种不同的面部表情,但一般我们只能表达三种主要的表情:高兴、生气、不只是一种表情的混合表情。根据社会心理学家保罗·埃克曼交叉文化的研究,面部表情能清晰地反应你的情感表达。当你在排练讲演时,注意你的面部表情是否有助于表达你思想的感情基调。

竹影无风 2004-04-03 11:13
9: Thinking on Your Feet


 WHAT IS AN IMPROMPTU SPEECH

  Thinking is something people do all day long.“Thinking on your feet”means being able to organize one‘s ideas quickly and speak about a subject without advance time to prepare. This type of speech is often called an impromptu speech.

  When do we make impromptu speeches? We make them all the time. Most of our conversations with friends, parents, teachers, and employers answering questions, giving opinions, or sharing knowledge about the many topics we discuss with people on a daily basis. As you can see, you already have experience giving impromptu speeches.

  In this chapter, you will learn how to think on your feet and give short speeches without advance preparation.

 

 ORGANIZING AN IMPROMPTU

  SPEECH Perhaps the most important tip for giving impromptu speeches is to be prepared. You can often predict when you might be asked to say a few words. Chances are small that you’ll be asked to speak on a topic you know nothing about. However, if you’re going to a meeting and you’re an expert on the subject under discussion, you’ll probably be asked to say a few words.

  The next most important tip is to take a few seconds to organize your thoughts before you begin speaking–don’t start speaking without some idea of what you’ll say, only to stop and struggle for words. Experienced speakers use a variety of techniques to help them quickly organize what they plan to say. Here’s one good approach adapted from the critical thinking skills that debaters develop. It takes only a few seconds in most cases.

  (1) Identify the single most important idea you plan to communicate.

  (2) Identify two or three support points for that single idea.

  (3) Piece together an opening sentence, preferably one that ties what has just gone on in the room with what you’re going to say.

 

 OUTLINING AN IMPROMPTU SPEECH

  When preparing for an impromptu speech, it can be helpful to create an outline for your ideas. This outline can be a real outline, which you write on paper, or a mental outline, which you keep in your head. When you create an outline, try to choose an organizational pattern that fits your topic. When Marco was asked to give an impromptu speech on“Addictions,”he divided the topic /into/ several parts. Notice how he used the pattern of related subtopics in the outline that follows.

  Example: Marco’s Outline

  Introduction

  Ⅰ. I’ll bet everyone in this room knows an addict! That’s right, I said addict. Before you get angry, please let me explain.

  Ⅱ. When we hear the word addiction, we usually think of harmful substances like drugs or alcohol. We forget there are many other kinds of addictions. I’d now like to remind you of some.

  Body

  Ⅰ. Television addictions

  A. Soap operas

  B. Detective shows

  C. Sports

  (1) Football

  (2) Baseball

  (3) Wrestling

  Ⅱ. Book addictions

  A.Romance novels

  B. Mysteries

  C. Science fiction

  Ⅲ. Eating addictions

  A.Ice cream

  B. Chocolate

  Ⅳ. Other addictions

  A. Shopping

  (1) Clothes

  (2) CDs

  (3) Antiques

  B. Hobbies

  (1) Stamp collecting

  (2) Photography

  C. Sports

  (1) Golf

  (2) Jogging

  (3) Swimming

  Conclusion

  Ⅰ. As you can see, not all addictions are bad for you. And, much to your surprise, you probably know someone who is an addict!

  Ⅱ. What kind of addict are you?

 

 GUIDELINES FOR IMPROMPTU SPEECH

  It’ll happen sooner or later in life, so you might at well get ready for it, sometime, somewhere, a finger will point your way, and you’ll be asked to get up and say a few words. Here are some principles to help turn these potentially embarrassing situations /into/ positive opportunities.

  Consider your audience. Just as you have learned to do in other speaking situations. When you are called on for impromptu remarks, think first of your audience. Who are the members of your audience? What are their common characteristics and interests? What do they know about your topic? What do they expect you to say? What is the occasion of your speech? A quick mental check of these questions will help ensure that even impromptu remarks are audience-centered.

  Be brief. When you are asked to deliver an off-the-cuff speech, your audience knows the circumstances and will not expect or even want a lengthy discourse. One to three minutes is a realistic time frame for most impromptu situations. Some spur-of-the-moment remarks, such as press statements, may be even shorter.

  Organize. Even off-the-cuff remarks need not falter or ramble. Effective impromptu speakers still organize their ideas /into/ an introduction, body, and conclusion. Consider organizing your point using a simple organizational strategy such as chronologicalsgroupsor a topical pattern. A variation on the chronological pattern is to use the past, present, future model of addressing an issue. This pattern is well known to students who compete in impromptu speaking contests. The speaker organizes the impromptu speech by discussing (1) what has happened in the past, (2)what is happening now, and (3) what may happen in the future.

  Speak honestly, but with reserve, from personal experience and knowledge. Because there is no opportunity to conduct any kind of research before delivering an impromptu speech, you will have to speak from your own experience and knowledge. Remember, audiences almost always respond favorably to personal illustration, so use any appropriate and relevant ones that come to mind. Of course, the more knowledge you have the subject to be discussed, the easier it will be to speak about it off the cuff. But do not make up information or provide facts or figures about which you are not certain. An honest“I dont know”or a very brief statement is more appropriate.

  Be cautious. No matter how much knowledge you have, if your subject is at all sensitive or your information is classified, be careful when discussing it during your impromptu speech. If asked about a controversial topic, give an honest but noncommittal answer. You can always elaborate later, but you can never take back something rash you have already said. It is better to be cautions than sorry!

竹影无风 2004-04-03 11:14
第九章: 即席演讲
 

 什么是即席演讲

  思考是人们每天都要做的一件事情。“现场站立思考”是指能够快速组织自己的观点,不要提前准备便能针对某个主题发表演讲,这种类型的演讲常常被称为即席演讲。

  我们什么时候要做即席演讲?随时随刻。我们与朋友、父母、老师以及老板的日常交谈、回答问题、发表意见或是分享知识的过程中,都有即席演讲的成分。就像你看到的,事实上你已经有过做即席演讲的经验了。

  在本章中,你会学到如何现场站立思考和如何不做任何准备地发表短小的演说。

 

 组织一篇即席演讲

  或许即席演讲最重要的一个秘诀是要随时做好准备,你应该能够预先通知自己将要发言。那种要求你对一天所知的主题做演讲的机会是微乎其微的,但如果你去参加某个会议而你又是讨论的问题方面的专家,你就很有可能被要求发言。

  另一个重要的秘诀是在开始演讲前要拿出几秒钟的时间组织一下自己的思想,不要头脑空空地便开始,否则你会因为选择一个合适的词语而常常停下来。有经验的演讲者使用不同的技巧来帮助他们快速组织想说的话。下面是一些有经验的辩论者总结出的一个很好的方法,在大多数情况下,它只需用几秒钟的时间。

  (1)明确你想传达的最重要的一个观点。

  (2)对这一观点想出两或三条支持论据。

  (3)开场白句子最可能把房间里刚发生的事和你想说的联系在一起。

  

列出即席演讲的大纲

  在准备即席演讲时,列出一个你思想的大纲是很有帮助的。这个大纲可以写成一个真正的大纲,你把它写在纸上,或者也可以是头脑中的一个大纲,你只是把它记在心里。在概括要点的时候,尽量选择一种适合你主题的有组织的模式。举个例子,马可要做一个关于“嗜好”的即席演讲,他将这个主题分成了几部分,注意下面他在大纲中是如何运用有关联副主题模式的。

  例子:马可的大纲

  导语:

  Ⅰ.我敢打赌在座的每个人都认识一个瘾君子!是的,我说的是瘾君子。在你们生气前,请先听我解释。

  Ⅱ.当我们听到“嗜好”这个词时,一般总是将它与毒品或酒精等有害物质联系在一起,我们忘了其实还有其他很多种嗜好,现在我就要提到一些。

  正文:

  Ⅰ.电视方面的嗜好

  A.肥皂剧B.侦探剧C.体育(1)足球

  (2)棒球

  (3)摔跤

  Ⅱ.书本方面的嗜好

  A.爱情小说B.侦探小说C.科幻小说

  Ⅲ.饮食方面的嗜好

  A.冰激凌B.巧克力

  Ⅳ.其他的嗜好

  A.购物(1)衣服

  (2)CD

  (3)古董B.业余爱好(1)集邮

  (2)摄影

  C.体育(1)高尔夫

  (2)慢跑

  (3)游泳

  结尾:

  Ⅰ.现在你明白了,并不是所有的嗜好都是坏的。并且,让你吃惊的是你可能就认识一个瘾君子。

  Ⅱ.你是哪种瘾君子呢?

  

即席演讲的指导原则

  即席演讲在你的生活中迟早会出现的:某一时刻,某一地点,一个手指会指向你,你必须站起来说点什么,所以你最好早做准备。下面是一些原则,它或许有助于把这种潜在的尴尬局面转化为主动的局面。

  考虑你的听众。与你学过的其他演讲一样,当你要做即席演讲时,先考虑你的听众。你的听众中包括一些什么人?他们的共同特征和兴趣爱好是什么?关于你的主题他们了解多少?他们期望你说些什么?你演讲的起因是什么?对这些问题快速地考虑一下,就会保证你的即席演讲以听众为中心。

  简短。当要求你做即兴演讲时,你的听众已经知道背景并且不期望你的话太长。1到3分钟比较合适,一些即席演讲,比如媒体声明,应该更短一些。

  组织。即使是即兴演讲也不要支支吾吾或拖长音。好的即兴演讲者仍会把他的思想组织成开场白、正文和结尾,试着考虑一下用简单的组织策略,比如时间顺序,或话题模式来组织你的观点,对时间顺序模式的一种变化方法是使用“过去-现在-未来”模式来说明一个问题。参加即席演讲比赛的学生们都知道这种方法。演讲者是这样组织他的即席演讲的:(1)过去发生的事物,(2)现在正在发生的,(3)未来将会发生的事物。

  诚实。有知识积累,从自身的经验和知识出发。由于在做即席演讲时没有机会做任何调整,你最好从自己的经验和知识来谈。记住,听众总是对个性的描述比较喜爱,所以讲一些脑海中与自己有联系的东西。当然,你掌握的关于主题的知识越多,做即席演讲就会越容易。但不要捏造信息或使用你不了解的事实或数据,一句诚实的“我不知道”或一个简洁的声明会更合适。

  小心谨慎。如果你的演讲主题比较敏感或者你的信息涉及到机密,不管你掌握多少知识,在演讲中谈论到这些问题时都要小心谨慎。被问到争论的问题时,你要做出一个诚实但中立的答案。尽管事后你可以精心地推敲,但你却不能将说过的话收回,所以小心谨慎总比事后遗憾要好一点。

竹影无风 2004-04-03 11:19
10: Special Speech
 

 PRESENTATION SPEECH

  An award presentation speech can be longer than introducing a speaker, depending on the situation. The emphasis is on the recipient’s past actions, not what the recipient will say when accepting the award. Here’s a classic example.

  Example: Presentation Speech

  

Colorado Beautification Award

  

By Mayor Mary Herron

  As Mayor of Colorado, California, I am frequently called on to present awards and commendations, but this particular award has great meaning for our community. We have inaugurated the Colorado Beautification Award to recognize the outstanding efforts of our citizens who provide this island community with its memorable elegance, its visual refreshment - in short, some of the most beautiful gardens we’ve seen anywhere in the world!

  As you all know, Colorado frequently plays host to presidents and dignitaries, and not a few celebrities, officials, men and women of the Armed Forces, America’s Cup racers, and other fascinating people from around the world. As they travel our small-town streets, gazing at the mansions, the Victorians, and the cozy cottages, one of the most commonly heard remarks is,“Oh, look at that beautiful garden!”The world has come to our doorstep and appreciates what it sees. We felt it was time to honor our next-door neighbors for the hours, thought, expense, and good old-fashioned toil they’re invested to make our island community a blooming paradise.

  This choice was not an easy one for our judges to make, as they’ll be glad to tell you, but after much study and consideration, our judges have named Brian and Andrea Applegate of 555“B”Avenue as our first recipients of the Colorado Beautification Award. If you’ve driven or walked by the Applegate home, you know that they have not been content to keep their roses, wisteria vines, flowering plums and exotic annuals well-tended inside the walls of their classic cottage garden. For the passersby who might feel shy about peeking through the arched trellis for a glimpse, the Applegate have extended this floral profusion outside their garden walls. They’re planted a colorful abundance of roses, shrubs, annuals, and perennials along the sidewalks of their corner lot,swhereseveryone can enjoy them.

  Mr. and Mrs. Applegate, if you’ll step up here please... I am honored to present you with this plaque which pays tribute to your selfless toil and investment. You have truly beautified our community, and you richly deserve the first Colorado Beautification Award!

  (She presents the plaque, steps aside, and joins the applause for the beaming couple.)

 

 ACCEPTANCE SPEECH

  The key to a successful acceptance speech is to be brief, especially if other people are receiving awards or honors after you. The dancer Mikhail Baryshnikov once accepted an award for actress Marlene Dietrich. When he asked her what he should say, she told him,“Take the thing, look at it, thank them, and go. That’s it! They don’t have time to listen anyway.”This is extreme - but good - advice. You want to let the audience know that you sincerely appreciate the honor without wasting too much of their time.

  Be sure to credit other people who helped you achieve what you are being honored for, but keep the list short and meaningful. The help might have been direct (such as co-workers contributing to a project) or indirect (such as your family not complaining about the extra time you spent on the project rather than with them).

  Avoid being overly effusive. You’ll usually want to avoid phrases like“greatest day of my life”or“best thing that has ever happened to me.”These tend to sound insincere. Express sincerely what the honor means to you, limiting the use of superlatives. Temper your enthusiasm with humility.

  Elie Wiesel spent most of his adult life tracking down Nazi war criminals, and when he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, he began his acceptance speech with the following paragraphs.

  Example: Acceptance Speech

  

Nobel Peace Prize

  

By Elie Wiesel

  It is with a profound sense of humility that I accept the honor you have chosen to bestow upon me. I know your choice transcends me. This both frightens and pleases me. It frightens me because I wonder: Do I have the right to represent the multitudes who have perished? Do I have the right to accept this great honor on their behalf? I do not. That would be presumptuous. No one may speak for the dead, no one may interpret their mutilated dreams and visions.

  It pleases me because I may say that this honor belongs to all the survivors and their children, and through us, to the Jewish people with whose destiny I have always identified.

  This introduction by Wiesel to his acceptance speech is so effective that he almost could have stopped right there.

  The acceptance speech given by the couple who won the garden contest is a model of graciousness. Notice how they thank people who’ve helped them along the way and share the joy they experience as gardeners, rather than focusing on their own talents or accomplishments.

  Example: Acceptance Speech

 

 Coronado Beautification Award

  

By Mr. Brian Applegate & Mrs. Andrea Applegate

  Mr. Brian Applegate:

  Thank you, Mayor Herron, friends, judges of the committee. My wife and I are quite touched by this honor, considering the many beautiful homes and gardens that cover this island. It has always been our joy to fill our garden with new plants, and things just kept expanding, until I believe we have finally run out of room for more. If our joy brings pleasure to others, then so much the better. Andrea, would you like to add a word?

  Mrs. Andrea Applegate:

  I would just like to thank our many friends who have given us cuttings from their own gardens; our children, who have endured our passion for pulling weeds and digging in the manure every spring; my mother, who taught me how to prune a rose; and the committee for bestowing this honor upon us. We’ve just been doing what we love to do, and we’re glad you’ve enjoyed it, too. Thank you all.

  Example: Acceptance Speech

  

The Nobel Prize for Literature

  

By William Faulkner

  I feel that this award was not made to me as a man, but to my work - a life’s work in the agony and sweat of the human spirit, not for glory and least of all for profit, but to create out of the materials of the human spirit, something which did not exist before. So this award is only mine in trust. It will not be difficult to find a dedication for the money part of it commensurate with the purpose and significance of its origin. But I would like to do the same with the acclaim too, by using this moment as a pinnacle from which I might be listened to by the young men and women already dedicated to the same anguish and travail, among whom is already that one who will some day stand hereswheresI am standing.

  Our tragedy today is a general and universal physical fear so long sustained by now that we can even bear it. There are no longer problems of the spirit. There are only the questions: When will I be blown up? Because of this, the young man or woman writing today has forgotten the problems of the human heart in conflict with itself which alone can make good writing about, worth the agony and the sweat.

  He must learn them again. He must teach himself that the basest of all things is to be afraid; and, teaching himself that, forget it forever, leaving no room in his workshop for anything but the old verities and truths of the heart, the old universal truths lacking which any story is ephemeral and doomed - love and honor and pity and pride and compassion and sacrifice. Until he does so, he labors under a curse. He writes not of love but of lust, of defeats in which nobody loses anything of value, of victories without hope and, worst of all, without pity or compassion. His griefs grieve on no universal bones, leaving none of the heart but of the glands.

  Until he relearns these things, he will write as though he stood among and watched the end of man. I decline to accept the end of man. It is easy enough to say that man is immortal simply because he will endure: that when the last ding-dong of doom has clanged and faded from the last worthless rock hanging tideless in the last red and dying evening, that even then there will still be one more sound: that of his puny inexhaustible voice, still talking. I refuse to accept this. I believe that man will not merely endure: he will prevail. He is immortal, not because he alone among creatures has an inexhaustible voice, but because he has soul, a spirit capable of compassion and sacrifice and endurance. The poet’s, the writer’s, duty is to write about these things. It is his privilege to help man endure by lifting his heart, by reminding him of the courage and honor and hope and pride and compassion and pity and sacrifice which have been the glory of his past. The poet’s voice need not merely be the record of man, it can be one of the props, the pillars to help him endure and prevail.

 

 KEYNOTE SPEECH

  The keynote speech is intended to make participants feel comfortable. As the presenter of the keynote speech, you represent the people who organized the event. What you say helps set the tone for the entire event.

  While limiting your speech to between three and five minutes, be sure to include vital information, such as information about the organization or event, about the people being welcomed, about the location of important facilities (if needed), and about what the audience can expect from the rest of the event. If you think your audience has other pressing questions or concerns that may keep them from paying attention to or enjoying the programs that follow, it’s a good idea to address these points at the beginning. On the other hand, you don’t want to spend five minutes pointing out the location of the restrooms and the procedure for getting a lunch ticket.

  In the following keynote speech, the speaker starts on a high note: pointing out the growth and importance of telecommuting, which is the subject of the conference. The speaker goes on to describe some highlights of the conference and the organization behind it. Notice how the speaker refers listeners to an information packer that contains all the details they’ll need without spending any valuable time going over the details.

  Example: Keynote Speech

  

National Conference of the Telecommuting

  

Advisory Council

  By Laine Downs

  Good morning and welcome to the tenth National Conference of the Telecommuting Advisory Council. We are glad to see so many of you here today, proving what we have known since our inception in 1987: that telecommuting is a viable and important work style which has grown tremendously in recent years, largely due to your efforts. Many of you are responsible for implementing telecommuting programs at your companies; others among you are responsible for the government programs that are funding community telecasters throughout the nation; and still others among you are businesspeople who recognize the economic bonus telecommuting can offer, not only to the telecommunications industry, but to community businesses that benefit as workers stay closer to home.

  Our purpose this weekend is to provide you with the most current information available about advances in the U.S. telecommuting sector. We have scheduled important forums throughout the conference covering the economic, environmental, social, technological, and legislative issues related to the telecommuting workforce. On Saturday morning, we’re offering a special workshop on“How to Implement a Pilot Telecommuting Program”and I’m told that there are a few spaces left, so if you’re interested, please head over to the registration table in the lobby as soon as we’re finished here.

  When you came in you received a packet of information about the conference; inside you’ll find a complete schedule of conference events and a detailed map of the hotel, which will show youswheresevery event is being held. If you need more information or if you wish to change or add to your workshop registrations, our staff will be glad to help you after this morning’s session.

  As you know, the Telecommuting Advisory Council began as a grass-roots organization and we have grown phenomenally, gaining our nonprofit status in 1993 and expanding to encompass regional chapters in Arizona, Texas, Colorado, New Jersey, and Oregon, with city chapters in San Diego, Los Angeles and Oranges County, Sacramento, Atlanta, Seattle, San Francisco, Chicago, and of course, our national headquarters in Washington, D.C. Were proud to announce the formation of our International/European Community Telework / Telematics Forum or ECTF, which you’ll be hearing more about later.

  The Telecommuting Advisory Council has also established a presence on the World Wide Web, our newsletter is growing every month, and our quarterly audio conferences have met with enthusiastic approval from our membership. We expect more of the same in the next ten years as larger numbers of the working population discover the benefits of telecommuting and as employers and community governments discover the economic, qualitative, and environmental benefits of allowing workers to telecommute.

  We’re very excited about being at the forefront of this new development, and we know that by the end of this weekend, you will leave our conference not only with new friends and associates who can support your efforts in the telecommuting field but also with new information, ideas, and skills gained from the distinguished faculty and panel representatives we’ve been able to assemble. So, again, I welcome you, and look forward to seeing all of you at our breakfast forum on Sunday.

 

 EULOGY

  One milestone at which you may be asked to speak is funeral. Here are a few things to remember if you are asked to give a eulogy, a tribute delivered at a funeral service.

  ●Talk to other friends and family; find out what they think is important to say.●Emphasize the positive aspects of the deceased’s life, but again, be realistic.●Keep it short. Avoid using poems or long quotes, unless requested by the family. The audience wants to hear about the person being eulogized, not the wisdom of somebody else.

  Senator Edward Kennedy delivered a eulogy at the funeral of his brother, Senator Robert Kennedy. He ended with the following words.

  Example: Eulogy

 

 Funeral of Robert Kennedy

  

By Edward Kennedy

  Those of us who loved him and who take him to his rest today pray that what he was to us, and what he wished for others, will some day come to pass for all the world.

  As he said many times, in many parts of this nation, to those he touches and who sought to touch him:“Some men see things as they are and say why. I dream things that never were and say, why not.”

  Obviously, words of eulogy as fitting as these were no doubt prepared with great care before the speech.

  When you deliver a eulogy, you should mention-indeed, linger over - the unique achievements of the person to whom you are paying tribute and, of course, express a sense of loss.

  At the funeral of former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy in 1994, Senator Edward Kennedy remembered his sister-in-law in the following way.

  Example: Eulogy

  

Funeral of Jacqueline Kennedy

  

By Edward Kennedy

  She was a blessing to us and to the nation, and a lesson to the world on how to do things right, how to be a mother, how to appreciate history, how to be courageous.

  No one else looked like her, spoke like her, wrote like her, or was so original in the way she did things.

  Finally, turn to the living, and encourage them to transcend their sorrow and sense of loss and feel instead gratitude that the dead person had once been alive among them. In eulogizing his sister, Diana, the Princess of Wales, Earl Spencer affirmed in the following way.

  Example: Eulogy

  

Funeral of Diana

  

By Earl Spencer

  Today is our chance to say thank you for the way you brightened our lives, even though God granted you but half a life. We will all feel cheated, always, that you were taken from us so young, and yet we must learn to be grateful that you came along at all.

竹影无风 2004-04-03 11:20
 COMMEMORATIVE SPEECH

  The following commemorative speech was delivered to the people of South Africa on May 10, 1994.Nelson Mandela was celebrating the hard-won liberty and equality for all South Africans. The noble rhetoric and lofty language are appropriate for this auspicious occasion. In fact, this speech is a good example of how the needs of the speaking situation dictate what is said and how the speaker says it. In addition to well-chosen and inspiring words, President Mandela uses repetition and alliteration to build momentum throughout the speech. With repeated references to We, he attempts, rhetorically, to unite the people of South Africa and heal the wounds that have divided his country. This speech proudly marches to conclusion and ends on a high note. Readers today can almost see the sun streaming down on South Africa as freedom begins its reign.

  Example: Commemorative Speech

 

 Glory and Hope: Let There Be Work,

  

Bread, Water, and Salt for All

  By Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa

  Your majesties, your royal highnesses, distinguished guests, comrades and friends:

  Today, all of us do, by our presence here, and by our celebrations in other parts of our country and the world, confer glory and hope to newborn liberty.

  Out of the experience of an extraordinary human disaster that lasted too long must be born a society of which all humanity will be proud.

  Our daily deeds as ordinary South Africans must produce an actual South African reality that will reinforce humanity’s belief in justice, strengthen its confidence in the nobility of the human soul and sustain all our hopes for a glorious life for all.

  All this we owe both to ourselves and to the peoples of the world who are so well represented here today.

  To my compatriots, I have hesitation in saying that each one of us is as intimately attached to the soil of this beautiful country as are the famous jacaranda trees of Pretoria and the mimosa trees of the bushel.

  Each time one of us touches the soil of this land, we feel a sense of personal renewal. The national mood changes as the seasons change.

  We are moved by a sense of joy and exhilaration when the grass turns green and the flowers bloom.

  That spiritual and physical oneness we all share with this common homeland explains the depth of the pain we all carried in our hearts as we saw our country tear itself apart in terrible conflict, and as we saw it spurned, outlawed and isolated by the peoples of the world, precisely because it has become the universal base of the pernicious ideology and practice of racism and racial oppression.

  We, the people of South Africa, feel fulfilled that humanity has taken us back /into/ its bosom, that we, who were outlaws not so long ago, have today been given the rare privilege to be host to the nations of the world on our own soil.

  We thank all our distinguished international guests forshavingscome to take possession with the people of our country of what is, after all, a common victory for justice, for peace, for human dignity.

  We trust that you will continue to stand by us as we tackle the challenges of building peace, prosperity, nonsexist, nonracialism and democracy.

  We deeply appreciate the role that the masses of our people and their democratic, religious, women, youth, business, traditional and other leaders have played to bring about this conclusion. Not least among them is my Second Deputy President, the Honorable E. W. de Clerk.

  We would also like to pay tribute to our security forces, in all their ranks, for the distinguished role they have played in securing our first democratic elections and the transition to democracy, from bloodthirsty forces which still refuse to see the light.

  The time for the healing of the wounds has come.

  The moment to bridge the chasms that divide us has come.

  The time to build is upon us.

  We have, at last, achieved our political emancipation. We pledge ourselves to liberate all our people from the continuing bondage of poverty, deprivation, suffering, gender and other discrimination.

  We succeeded to take our last steps to freedom in conditions of relative peace. We commit ourselves to the construction of a complete, just and lasting peace.

  We have triumphed in the effort to implant hope in the breasts of the millions of our people. We enter /into/ a covenant that we shall build the society in which all South Africans, both black and white, will be able to walk tall, without any fear in their hearts, assured of their inalienable right to human dignity - a rainbow nation at peace with itself and the world.

  As a token of its commitment to the renewal of our country, the new Interim Government of National Unity will, as a matter of urgency, address the issue of amnesty various categories of our people who are currently serving terms of imprisonment.

  We dedicate this day to all the heroes and heroines in this country and the rest of the world who sacrificed in many ways and surrendered their lives so that we could free.

  Their dreams have become reality. Freedom is their reward.We are both humbled and elevated by the honor and privilege that you, the people of South Africa, have bestowed on us, as the first president of a united, democratic, nonracial and nonsexist South Africa, to lead our country out of the valley of darkness.

  We understand it still that there is no easy road to freedom.

  We know it well that none of us acting alone can achieve success.

  We must therefore act together as a united people, for national reconciliation, for nation building, for the birth of a new world.

  Let there be justice for all.

  Let there be peace for all.

  Let there be work, bread, water and salt for all.

  Let each know that for each the body, the mind and the soul have been freed to fulfill themselves.

  Never, never and never again shall it be that this beautiful land will again experience the oppression of one by another and suffer the indignity of being the skunk of the world.

  The sun shall never set on so glorious a human achievement!

  Let freedom reign, God bless Africa!

  The following commemorative speech was presented by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. In Washington, D.C. on August 28, 1963.

  Dr. Kings powerful message about continuing the struggle for civil rights is one of the most famous speeches of the twentieth century. King was speaking to crowd of 200,000 supporters who had gathered at the Lincoln Memorial to demonstrate their support for a civil rights bill that was stalled in Congress. King’s concrete, compelling language portrays the consequences of racial discrimination in human terms rather than as vague conceptual issues. Using vivid imagery, metaphor, and rhythm, King speaks eloquently of his dream of freedom for all. The phrase“I have a dream”echoes throughout the second half of the speech and is answered by the phrase“let freedom ring”as it’s repeated throughout the conclusion. These recurring phrases reinforce the mental images created by King’s words, and they help motivate listeners to take action. King’s dramatic delivery was so effective that by his closing words, listeners were rising to their feet and applauding thunderously in acclamation.

  Example: Commemorative Speech

  

I Have a Dream

  

By Martin Luther King

  I am happy to join with you today in what will go down in history as the greatest demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.

  Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves, who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.

  But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land. And so we’ve come here today to dramatize a shameful condition.

  In a sense we’ve come to our nation’s Capitol to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men - yes, black men as well as white men - would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

  It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note insofar as citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check - a check which has come back marked“insufficient funds.”

  But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so we’ve come to cash this check - a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice.

  We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksand’s of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.

  It would be fatal for the nation to overlook the urgency of the moment. This sweltering summer of the Negro’s legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality. Nineteen sixty-three is not an end, but a beginning. Those who hope that the Negro needed to blow off steam and will now be content business as usual. There will be neither rest nor tranquility in America until the Negro is granted his citizenship rights. The whirlwinds of revolt will continue to shake the foundations of our nation until the bright day of justice emerges.

  But there is something that I must say to my people, who stand on the warm threshold which leads /into/ the palace of justice. In the process of gaining our rightful place, we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds. Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred.

  We must forever conduct our struggle on the high plane of dignity and discipline. We must not allow our creative protest to degenerate /into/ physical violence. Again and again we must rise to the majestic heights of meeting physical force with soul force.

  The marvelous new militancy which has engulfed the Negro community must not lead us to a distrust of all white people. For many of our white brothers, as evidenced by their presence is tied up with our destiny. They have come to realize that their freedom is inextricably bound to our freedom.

  We cannot walk alone. As we walk, we must make the pledge that we shall always march ahead. We cannot turn back. There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights.“When will you be satisfied?”We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our vain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro’s basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to a larger one. We can never be satisfied as long as our children are stripped of their selfhood and robbed of their dignity by signs stating“For Whites Only.”We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream.

  I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. Some of you have come from areasswheresyour quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the wounds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive.

  Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our Northern cities, knowing that somehow his situation can and will be changed. Let us not wallow in the valley of despair.

  I say to you today, my friends, so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream.

  I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of his creed,“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.”

  I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.

  I have a dream that one day even the state of Mississippi, a state sweltering with the heat of injustice, sweltering with the heat of oppression, will be transformed /into/ an oasis of freedom and justice.

  I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nationswheresthey will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character. I have a dream today.

  I have a dream that one day, down in Alabama, with its vicious racists, with the words of interposition and nullification, one day right there in Alabama little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers. I have a dream today.

  I have a dream that one day every valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the rough places will be made plane and the crooked places will be made straight, and the glory of the Lord shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together.

  This is our hope. This is the faith that goes back to the South. With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope. With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discords of our nation /into/ a beautiful symphony of brotherhood. With this faith we will be able to work together, to pray together, to struggle together, to go to jail together, to stand up for freedom together, knowing that we will be free one day.

  This will be the day - this will be the day when all of God’s children will be able to sing with new meaning.“Mr country’s of thee, sweet land of liberty, of thee I sing, Landswheresmy fathers died, land of the pilgrim’s pride, from every mountainside, let freedom ring.”And if America is to be a great nation, this must become true.

  So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire.

  Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York.

  Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania!

  Let freedom ring from the snowcapped Rockies of Colorado!

  Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California!

  But not only that. Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia!

  Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee!

  Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.

  And when this happens, when we allow freedom to ring - when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city - we will be able to speed up that day when all of God’s children, black men and white men, Jews and Gentiles, Protestants and Catholics, will be able to join hands and sing in the words of the old Negro spiritual,“Free at last! Free at last! Thank God almighty, we are free at last!”

竹影无风 2004-04-03 11:20

 COMMENCEMENT SPEECH

  Every graduation must have a speech, sometimes several. This unwritten but binding law means that the commencement address should take its place among other types of special-occasion speeches. Sometimes the commencement speaker is an outstanding member of the faculty or school administration. Increasingly, commencement speakers are politicians, writers, entertainers, and television celebrities. Whoever is elected, the commencement speaker must fulfill two important functions. First, the commencement speaker should praise the graduating class. The second function of the commencement speaker is to turn graduates toward the future.

  Example: Commencement Speech

  

Speech to the 1996 Graduates of the

 

 University of Carolina

  By Janet Reno

  You are the future of this country. I know you have the energy. I know you have the commitment. I know you can make the choice to stand for what is right and good in this world. If you choose public service, you will be choosing one of the most rewarding and fulfilling careers our society can offer. But whether you are running a business, or teaching a class, prosecuting criminals, or raising a family, you can make a difference.

  The following commencement address was presented at the University of West Florida on October 28,1993. The speech is lighthearted, it’s easy to read(and listen to), and most important, it’s short. The brevity would certainly be appreciated by anyone who has suffered through lengthy graduation speeches full of rambling platitudes about the graduates- brilliant future. Instead, Martha Sanders uses a simple theme of three-word phrases to provide some homespun advice to the graduates seated before her. She uses examples and stories to illustrate each of the three-word phrases and to make them memorable.

  Example: Commencement Speech

 

 Learn to Listen with Your Heart

 

 By Martha Sanders

  Delivered at the University of West Florida

  In the Department of Communication Arts we spend a great deal of time thinking and talking about words - the meaning of words, the persuasive value of words, the ethical implications of words and, generally, the impact of words as they are delivered in messages among people. Because of this, I was especially captured by a magazine article a few months ago which discussed how words influence people.

  The article suggested that the most important messages that humans deliver to one another are usually expressed in very simple terms. I hope that doesn’t shock you now that you’ve spent these past few yearsshavingsyour minds crammed with complicated thoughts. The article went on to suggest that the most influential messages in our language most often come in three-word phrases.

  I had to agree that three-word phrases such as“I love you”, or“there’s no charge,”or“and in conclusion”certainly were capable of prompting a strong reaction in me, and as I had hoped to impress you with profound thought today, I decided to share with you three three-word phrases that I have found useful as I have moved along in my life.

  The first three-word phrase I’ve found useful in life is this: I’ll be there. Have you ever thought about what a balm those three words can create?

  I’ll be there. If you’re ever had to call for a plumber over a weekend you know how really good these words can feel. Or it you’ve been stranded on the road with car trouble and used your last quarter to call a friend, you know how good those words can be. Think about them:“Grandma, I’m graduating in August!”I’ll be there.

  “Roommate, I’m stuck at the office and can’t get to the airport to meet my sister!”I’ll be there.

  “Mom the bady cries all night and if I don’t get some sleep I’ll perish!”I’ll be there.

  Recently I was talking with a local business person who is occasionally in a position to hire UWF graduates, and she told me the single most impressive thing a job candidate can do is to demonstrate a real interest in the well-being of that business. Someone who will help further the objectives of that organization, whether or not he or she is“on the clock”is going to be valuable person. In other words, be somebody who will be there.

  One of my favorite stories about someone who knew how to“be there”is told of Elizabeth, the Queen Mother of England, who was asked whether the little princesses(Elizabeth and Margaret Rose) would leave England after the Blitz of 1940, the queen replied:“The children will not leave England unless I do. I shall not leave unless their father does, and the king will not leave the country in any circumstances whatever.”I’ll be there.

  The second three-word phrase I want to present to you is perhaps the hardest to learn to say - I know it was for me and sometimes still is. That is, maybe“you’re right.”Think about it. If more people were to learn to say maybe you’re right the marriage counselors would be out of business and, with a little luck, the gun shops. I know from experience it can have a disarming effect on an opponent in an argument. In fact, one of my lawyer friends uses it often in his closing remarks - and he is a very successful lawyer. Maybe you’re right.

  It has been my experience that when we get so hung up on getting our own way that we will not concede on any point, we are doing ourselves a real disservice. Make life a little easier on yourself. Remember the old saying:“There are a hundred ways to skin a cat - and every single one of them is right.”Maybe you’re right.

  The third phrase I want to introduce to you I must have heard a thousand times when I was a little girl. Whenever I was faced with a hard decision I would turn to my caregiver and ask what I should do. Her response was always the same three-letter phrase -“Your heart knows”- then she would go on about what she was doing.“What’s that supposed to mean? I need advice here. I need for you to tell me what to do.”

  She would just smile and say.“Your heart knows, honey, your heart knows.”

  But as I was an imperious child, I would throw my hand on my hip and say.“Maybe so, but my heart isn’t talking!”

  To this she would respond -“Learn to listen.”Now, life doesn’t come in the form of a degree plan. There’s no Great Advisor over there who will give you a checklist and say,“Do these things and you’ll earn your degree in‘life’.”

  To some extent, the page is blank now. You may have a rough outline ofswheresyou’re headed, but I can assure you, you won’t get there withoutshavingsto make some tough decisions - and decision making is never easy.

  You may be able to find people to suggest what you should do, but for me most part, no one will be willing to accept the responsibility for your mistakes. You’ll have to make your own choices.

  My advice to you today is to learn to listen to your heart. The psychologists call this“tuning in to our subconscious.”Spiritual leaders call it“turning to higher power.”Whatever you call it, there is an ability in each of you to find the right answers for your life. It’s there and it’s a powerful gift that all the education or degrees in the world can’t acquire for you. You’ve had it all along - now, you’re going to have to use it.

  In“The Bending of the Bough,”George Moore wrote:“The difficulty in life is the choice.”

  Choose well, Graduates.

竹影无风 2004-04-03 11:22
第十章: 特殊演讲
  

颁奖演讲

  颁奖演讲应当比对演讲者的介绍要长,这要由情况而定。其重点应该放在得奖者以前的行为上,而不是他在得奖时要说的话。下面是一个典型的例子。

  举例:颁奖演讲

  

科罗拉多美化市容奖

  

市长Mary Herron

  作为加利福尼亚科罗拉多市的市长,我经常被邀请给别人颁奖,但这一个特殊的奖对我们社区来讲有着巨大的意义。我们之所以设立这个奖项是为了表彰我们的市民所作出的杰出贡献,他们让我们的社区在短短的时间里有了新的气象,让人难忘的优美,我们看到了世界上最美丽的花园!

  大家都知道,总统和一些显要人物经常光临科罗拉多,还有不少的知名人士、官员、军方人物、美国奖杯的获奖运动员,以及来自全世界的其他有魅力的人们。当他们走到小城的街道上,注视着高楼大厦,维多利亚风格建筑和舒适的小别墅时,一般最常说的一句话是:“噢,快看那座漂亮的花园!”世界已经来到我们门前并尽情欣赏门内的景色,我们感到现在是时候表彰奖励那些为我们社区付出时间、精力、代价和艰辛劳动的人们了,是他们的努力让我们生活的社区变成了一个开满了鲜花的天堂。

  我们的评委很乐意告诉你们,让他们做出最后的选择是很困难的,但在经过多次研究和考虑后,他们决定提名555“B”街道的Brian和Andrea Applegate夫妇作为第一届科罗拉多美化奖的获得者。如果你曾经路过Applegate的家,你就会知道他们不仅仅在自家别墅的花园中栽种了玫瑰、葡萄、盛开的李子以及奇异的一年生植物。对于那些羞于通过他们的弓形篱笆向内“偷窥”的路人来说,Applegate还将他们的花园拓展到了墙外。在拐角的空地上他们种了一大片彩色的玫瑰、灌木、一年生植物以及多年生植物,在那里路过的每一个人都可以尽情欣赏。

  Applegate先生和夫人,请你们上台……我很荣幸地为你们无私的辛劳和贡献颁发这个奖章。你们真正地美化了我们的社区,获得第一届科罗拉多美化市容奖你们当之无愧!

  (市长颁了奖章,走到一边,加入到为这对光荣的夫妻而鼓掌的行列中。)

  

得奖演讲

  一个成功的得奖演讲的关键是简洁,特别是在你之后不定期有其他人要接受奖项或荣誉时。舞蹈家Mikhail Baryshnikov曾经因为扮演Marlene Dietrich获过一个奖,当被问到她得奖后想说些什么时,她说:“拿着奖品,看看它,感谢大家,然后离开,就这样,没有人有时间听你说话。”这是一种极端但却不错的建议。你想让听众知道你真诚地感谢这个奖项,同时也不愿浪费他们的时间。

  记住要感谢那些帮你得奖的其他人,感谢的名单要短并且有意义。可以感谢直接的帮助(比如共同完成事业的工作伙伴),也可以感谢间接的帮助(比如你的家庭并没有抱怨你把时间都用在事业上而忽略了他们)。

  不要太过于有感情,你一般应当避免使用“我生命中最伟大的一天”或“发生在我身上最好的一件事”等语句,这些听起来不真诚。真诚地表明这个奖对你意味着什么,限制最高级的使用,在热情中加入谦逊。

  Elie Wiesely将他的大部分时间花在追踪纳粹战争罪犯上,当他得到诺贝尔和平奖时,他是这样开始他的得奖演讲的。

  例子:得奖演讲

 

 诺贝尔和平奖

 

 Elie Wiesely

带着深深的谦卑我接受了你们赐予我的这个奖项,我知道你们的选择要远远多于我,这使我既害怕又高兴。我之所以害怕是因为我想知道:我有权利代表那些已经死去的人们吗?我有权利代表他们接受这个伟大的奖吗?我想我没有这个权利,这太冒昧了,没有人能够为死去的人发言,没有人能够破译他们支离破碎的梦境和想像。

  而我之所以高兴是因为我要说这个奖是属于所有的幸存者和他们的后代的,并且通过我们给予那些犹太人,我总是想明确他们的命运。

  以上Wiesely对他演讲的介绍非常有影响力,他几乎可以就到此为止了。

  而获得美化市容奖的那对夫妻发表的得奖演讲则是和蔼可亲的一个范例:注意一下他们是如何感谢那些帮助过他们的人,并与大家一起分享他们作为园丁的喜悦,而不是将焦点放在他们自己的才能和成绩上。

  举例:得奖演讲

 

 科罗拉多美化市容奖

 

 Brian Applegate先生和Andrea Applegate夫人

  Brian Applegate先生:

  感谢你们--Herron市长,我们的朋友以及评委会的委员们,想到在这块土地上那许许多多的美丽的家庭和花园,我和我的妻子为这个奖深深地感动了。我们一直把在花园里栽种新植物作为我们的快乐,花园的规模不断扩大,直到最后我们发现它已经拓展到屋外太多了。如果我们的快乐也带给别人以欢乐,那么越多越好。Andrea,你想再补充几句吗?

  Andrea Applegate夫人:

  我只是想感谢我们许多的朋友,他们从自己的花园中移栽给我们许多植物;我们的孩子与我们一起拔草,在每年春天施肥;我的母亲教给我如何修剪玫瑰,还要感谢评委会颁给我们这个奖。我们只是做了我们喜欢做的事,很高兴你们能够欣赏,感谢所有的人。

  举例:得奖演讲

  

诺贝尔文学奖

 

 威廉·福克纳

  我感觉到这个奖不是授给我个人的,而是对我工作的奖励--因为我一生都在凭着一种人的精神在痛苦和汗水中工作着,我工作不为名,更不为利,而是为了从人类精神中创造出一些以前所不存在的东西。所以,这份奖只是委托于我而已。就诺贝尔奖本身的目的和意义来讲,我们不难发现人们也是为了与这目的和意义等值的金钱而献身。但是,我也同样公开申明自己的观点。我要把此刻当作我一生的一个顶峰,我站在这里,可以让那些已献身于同样的痛苦与劳作的青年男女们听我讲述自己的观点,这些年轻人中某个人有一天也会来到我现在站的地方领奖。

  我们今天的悲剧在于我们长期以来一直能忍受着普遍而带有全球性的物质恐惧,再也没有精神问题的存在。现在只有一个问题,那就是:我什么时候会被彻底毁了,变得一钱不值?正因为如此,今天从事写作的青年男女们都已忘记了人类内心自相冲突的种种问题;仅仅这些问题就可以用来写出好作品,因为这些内容才值得写,才值得作家为之忍受痛苦、流血流汗。

  作者必须重新了解这些问题,必须使自己懂得,最黑暗的东西是最可怕的。同时他必须告诫自己要永远忘记这东西,决不在自己的书房里给这东西留一点点空隙,而只写人们内心中亘古至今的真情实感--爱情、荣誉、同情、自豪、怜悯之心和牺牲精神--缺少了这些永恒的真情实感,任何作品必然是昙花一现,难以永存的。在达到这种水平以前,他所从事的写作会受到人们诅咒,因为他写出来的东西充满的不是爱情,而是情欲;充满的是谁也不损失任何有价值的东西的各种挫败,是没有希望,更缺少同情与怜悯之心的胜利。他描绘的悲伤情景不是人们都能体会到的生离死别,不能给读者的心灵留下任何痕迹。他描写的不是人们的内心世界,而是人们体内分泌的腺体。

  在他懂得这一切以前,他的写作活动犹如身居众生之间,注视着人类的末日来临。我决不接受人类末日这一说法。我们可以很轻松地说,人类永生,因为人类能够忍受。即使进地狱之门的最后一声钟声已经敲响,即使最后一缕暮色已从海滩落潮后最后一块无名的岩石上消失;即使到了这种地步,我们还可以听到一种声音,即人类的细小而永不疲惫的声音还在说话。所以,我决不能接受前面的观点。我认为人类不仅仅能忍受,人类还将取得胜利。人类之所以会永生,不仅仅因为他是各种动物中惟一能够永不疲倦地说话,还因为他有思想,有一种会怜悯人、能作出牺牲、能忍耐的精神。诗人和作家的责任就是要去描写这些东西。他的特权就是帮助人类提高精神境界,提醒他们记住过去曾使他们荣耀的东西:勇气、荣誉、希望、自豪、同情心、怜悯之心和牺牲精神。诗人的声音不能仅仅是为人类做的语言记录,而应是帮助人类忍受并取胜的道具和支柱。

  

主旨演讲

  主旨演讲的目的是使参加者感到舒适。作为一个主旨演讲者,你代表着活动的组织者,你的演讲内容帮助决定着整个活动的基调。

  把你的演讲限定在3到5分钟,确定其中包括了重要的信息,比如关于活动或组织的信息,受到欢迎的人们的情况,重要设施的地点(如果需要的话)以及听众希望知道的活动的其他部分。如果你认为听众对接下来的程序还有一些别的迫切的要求,并且这会有助于提高他们的参加兴趣,那么最好在开始时也提到这些需求。毕竟你不愿意把5分钟时间都花在告诉听众如何找到休息室和如何拿到一张饭票上。

  下面的这个主旨演讲中,演讲者的起点较高:指出远程办公发展情况和重要性,这也是这次会议的主旨;演讲者描述了会议的一些重要部分和在它背后的组织活动,注意一下演讲者是如何传递听众需要的信息而没有浪费一点时间的。

  举例:主旨演讲

  

远程办公咨询委员会的全国会议

 

 Laine Downs

  早上好,欢迎参加第十届远程办公咨询委员会的全国会议。今天,我们很高兴看到许许多多在座的各位,这也证明了自从1987年开始时我们就知道的:远程办公是一种有生存能力和重要的办公形式。近几年它的发展极为迅速,这主要归功于你们的努力。你们中的许多人在自己的公司贯彻执行了远程办公项目,其他的一些人向政府号召在全国范围投资兴建了社区电视广播系统,还有一些人作为商人意识到远程办公带来的经济红利,不仅仅对于电信工业,而且也使社区商业受益,工人们与家更为接近了。

  这个周末我们的目的是提供给你美国远程办公进展方面最新的有效信息,在这次会议中我们安排了一些重要的研讨会,涉及到与远程办公工作者相关的经济、环境、社会、技术以及立法问题。在周六的早上会有一个关于“如何贯彻示范性远程办公项目”的特殊讨论,我被告知还有一些空位,如果你感兴趣的话,一会儿结束后请到前厅去登记。

  你们一来到这里就收到了许多关于会议的资料,其中你会看到会议活动的全部日程和饭店的详细地图,它会告诉你每一项活动都在哪里举行。如果你需要更多的信息或者想要改变或添加你的会议登记内容,在今早的会议结束后我们的工作人员很乐意为你解决问题。

  正如你们知道的,远程办公咨询委员会最初是一个民间组织,现在我们已经明显壮大。1993年确立了我们的非营利地位并拓展了一些地区性的分会,如亚利桑那、得克萨斯、科罗拉多、新泽西和俄勒冈;另外,还在圣地亚哥、西雅图、旧金山、芝加哥设立了城市分会,当然我们的总部是在哥伦比亚特区华盛顿。我们很自豪地宣告我们的组织:国际性的/欧洲地区远程办公/远程遥感办公研讨会,或简称ECTF,以后会越来越多地被提到。

  远程办公咨询委员会在世界万维网上建立了自己的网站,我们的时事通讯每个月都在增加,每季度举行一次的听证会得到了我们的会员的热情同意。我们期望在以后的十年中有更多的工作者发现远程办公的益处,有更多的企业主和地区政府发现让员工远程办公而带来的经济、质量和环境上的益处。

  我们很高兴能处在这项新发展的前沿,在这个周末结束之后,你们不仅会带着远程办公领域可以帮助你们的朋友和合作伙伴离开本次会议,你们还会从我们召集的杰出专业人员和小组讨论代表身上得到许多新的信息、观念和技术。所以,再次欢迎你们的到来,期待着在周日的早餐会议上见到你们所有的人。

  

悼词

  在类似葬礼这种里程碑似的事件中,你或许会被要求发言。当这一时刻来临,你要记住以下几点:

  ●与其他朋友或家庭成员交谈,找出他们认为该说的重要部分。●强调死者一生中正面的事迹,但要实事求是。●保持简洁,除非家庭成员有要求,不要使用诗歌或过长的引文。听众想听到被歌颂人物的事迹,而并不想看到另一个人表现他的智慧。

  议员爱德华·肯尼迪在他哥哥议员罗伯特·肯尼迪的葬礼上发表了一篇歌功颂德的演讲,他是这样结束的。

  举例:悼词

  

罗伯特·肯尼迪的葬礼

 

 爱德华·肯尼迪

  那些爱他的人和将继承他的遗志的人今天都在祈祷:他在我们心中的意义和他对别人的祝愿有一天会传遍整个世界。

  就像他在这个国家的许多场合,对那些被他感动和试图感动他的人曾经说过多次的话:“有些人按照事物原本的模样来认识事物,他们问‘为什么’,而我希望从来不要认为事物是理所应当的,要问一句‘为什么不能’。”

  很明显,像以上这种演讲中的文字毫无疑问需要在演讲前做一番精心的准备。

  当你发表悼词演讲时,你应当实实在在地指出并围绕着你所歌颂的这个人的杰出成绩而做发言,当然,还要表现你对逝者的哀悼。

  1994年,在前第一夫人杰奎琳·肯尼迪的葬礼上,参议员爱德华·肯尼迪是用以下方式来缅怀其嫂子的。

  举例:悼词

  

杰奎琳·肯尼迪的葬礼

 

 爱德华·肯尼迪

  对于我们和国家来说,拥有她是一件幸事;对于世界来说,她则教育人们如何办好事情,如何成为母亲,如何欣赏历史,如何变得勇敢。

  没有人能够像她,像她一样谈论,像她一样写作,以她如此独特的方式行事。

  最后,再转向生者,鼓励他们超越悲伤和失落感,代之以感恩之心,因为毕竟死者曾经和他们一起生活过。斯潘塞伯爵在悼念其姐威尔士王妃戴安娜时,采用的就是下面的方式。

  举例:悼词

  

戴安娜的葬礼

 

 斯潘塞伯爵

  今天是一个机会,我们要说谢谢你,你的榜样照亮了我们的生活,虽然上帝只给了你一半的生命。你那么年轻就被上帝召回去了,我们大家总感到受了上帝的骗,然而我们不得不感到多蒙上帝之恩,毕竟上帝让你到我们这儿来过了。

竹影无风 2004-04-03 11:22

  

纪念演讲

  下面的纪念演讲是1994年5月10日对南非人民发表的。纳尔逊·曼德拉庆祝所有南非人民来之不易的自由和平等。在这种吉庆的场合,尊贵华丽的辞藻和高雅的语言非常适合。事实上,对于如何根据情形决定演讲者该说什么以及他该如何说,这篇演讲是一个很好的例子。曼德拉总统除了用反复和头韵以外,还加了一些精心挑选和鼓舞人心的话,用来通篇加强营造冲击力。通过反复提到“我们”,他试图将南非人民团结起来,疗治国家分裂带来的创伤。这篇演讲一直自豪到结尾,以一句很高的口号结束。今天的读者都几乎能看到当自由开始统治时,太阳照耀在南非上的场景。

  举例:纪念演讲

  

光辉与希望:让所有人得享工作、水、面包和盐

 

 曼德拉南非总统

  陛下,殿下,尊贵的嘉宾,同胞们,朋友们:

  今天,我们会聚于此,与我国和世界其他地方前来庆贺的人士一起,对新生的自由赋予光辉和希望。

  这一异常的人类悲剧太过漫长了,这些经验孕育出一个令全人类引以自豪的社会。

  作为南非的一介平民,我们日常的一举一动,都要为南非创造现实条件,去巩固人类对正义的信念,增强人类对心灵深处高尚品德的信心,以及让所有人保持对美好生活的期望。

  所有这些,不仅归功于我们自己,而且要归功于今天在场的人所代表的世界人民。

  对我的同胞,我可以毫不犹疑地说,我们每一个人都跟这美丽祖国的大地亲密地牢不可分,就如红木树之于比勒陀利亚,含羞草之于灌木林。

  我们每一个人每次触摸这块土地的土壤时,都有一种人性更新的感觉。

  在草绿花开之时,我们也会为一种喜悦和兴奋的感觉所感动。

  我们对这共同的家乡在精神上和肉体上有共同的感觉,当目睹国家因可怕的冲突而变得四分五裂,遭全球人民唾弃、孤立,特别是当它成为恶毒的意识形态的普遍根基和种族主义、种族压迫的演练之地时,我们的内心如此地痛苦。

  我们南非人民,对全人类将我们再度纳入怀抱,感到非常高兴。不久之前,我们还遭全世界摒弃,而现在却能在自己的土地上,招待各国的嘉宾。

  我们要感谢所有这些杰出的国际客人能够来与我国的人民一起分享胜利,虽然这是为了公正、为了和平和为了人类尊严的共同胜利。

  我们相信,当我们在建设和平、繁荣、民主、非性别主义和非种族主义遇到挑战时,你们将会继续支持我们的。

  我们非常感谢我国广大人民,以及各方民主政治、宗教、妇女、青年、商业及其他方面领袖所作的贡献,使我们取得了上述的成就。特别功不可没的,是我的第二副总统--德克勒克先生。

  我们也要对我们一排排列队的安全部队表示敬意,因为他们在反对那些仍然拒绝看到光明的残忍军队的破坏,保卫我们的第一次民主选举和向民主化过度中作出了卓越的贡献。

  治愈创伤的时候已经来临。

  消除分隔我们的鸿沟的时刻已经来临。

  创建的时机就在眼前。

  我们终于取得了政治解放。我们承诺,会将依然陷于贫穷、剥削、苦难、受着性别及其他歧视的国人解放出来。

  我们已成功地在相对和平的情况下迈向自由的最后几步。我们承诺要构造一个完整、公正和永恒的和平。

  我们已成功地让我们千千万万的国人的心中燃起希望。我们立下誓约,要建立一个让所有南非人,不论是黑人还是白人,都可以昂首阔步的社会。他们心中不再有恐惧,他们可以肯定自己拥有不可剥夺的人类尊严--这是一个在国内及与其他各国之间都保持和平的美好国度。

  作为我国致力更新的证明,新的全国统一过渡政府的当务之急是处理目前在狱中服刑囚犯的特赦问题。

  我们将今天献给为我们的自由而献出生命和做出牺牲的我国以至世界其他地方的英雄。

  他们的理想现已成真,自由就是他们的报酬。

  作为一个统一、民主、非种族主义和非性别主义的南非首任总统,要负责带领国家脱离黑暗的深谷。我们怀着既谦恭又欣喜的心情接受你们给予我们的这份荣誉与权利。

  我们深信,自由之路从来都不易走。

  我们很清楚,没有任何一个人可以单独取得成功。

  因此,为了全国和解,建设国家,为了一个新世界的诞生,我们必须团结成为一个民族,共同行动。

  让所有人得享正义。

  让所有人得享和平。

  让所有人得享工作、面包、清水、白盐。

  让每个人都明白,每个人的身体、思想和灵魂都获得了解放,从属于自己。

  这片美丽的土地永远、永远、永远再不会经历人对人的压迫,以及遭全球唾弃的屈辱。

  对于如此光辉的成就,太阳永不会停止照耀。

  让自由战胜一切。愿上帝保佑南非!

  下面的纪念演讲是1963年8月28日马丁·路德·金牧师在华盛顿发表的。

  金牧师这篇关于继续为人权而战的强有力的演讲是20世纪最著名的演讲之一。金是对20万支持者进行的演讲,他们为了证明自己支持被国会搁置的人权法案而聚集在林肯纪念堂前。金用具体的、引人注目的语言描绘了种族歧视在人类历史的影响,没把它当成模糊、抽象的问题。金用生动的比喻、暗喻和韵律感人地说出了希望全人类自由的梦想。短语“我有一个梦想”在整个后半段回荡,而用短语“让自由之声响彻”在结尾部分重复来加以呼应。这些相互呼应的短语加强了由金的语言所塑造出的精神雕像,激励听者采取行动。金戏剧性的演讲非常感人,当他结束时,听者都站起来,用雷鸣般的掌声表示喝彩。

  举例:纪念演讲

 

 我有一个梦想

  

马丁·路德·金

  今天,我高兴地同大家一起,参加这次将成为我国历史上为了争取自由而举行的最伟大的示威集会。

  100年前,一位伟大的美国人--今天我们就站在他象征性的身影下--签署了《解放宣言》。这项重要法令的颁布,对于千百万灼烤于非正义残焰中的黑奴,犹如带来希望之光的硕大灯塔,恰似结束漫漫长夜禁锢的欢畅黎明。

  然而,100年后,黑人依然没有获得自由。100年后,黑人依然悲惨地蹒跚于种族隔离和种族歧视的枷锁之下。100年后,黑人依然生活在物质繁荣这一浩瀚大海之中的贫困孤岛上。100年后,黑人依然在美国社会中间向隅而泣,依然感到自己在国土家园中流离漂泊。所以,我们今天来到这里,要把这骇人听闻的情况公诸于众。

  从某种意义上说,我们来到国家的首都是为了兑现一张支票。我们共和国的缔造者在拟写宪法和独立宣言的辉煌篇章时,就签署了一张每一个美国人都能继承的期票。这张期票向所有人承诺--不论白人还是黑人--都享有不可让渡的生存权、自由权和追求幸福权。

  然而,今天美国显然对她的有色公民拖欠着这张期票。美国没有承兑这笔神圣的债务,而是开始给黑人一张空头支票--一张盖着“资金不足”的印戳被退回的支票。

  但是,我们决不相信正义的银行会破产。我们决不相信这个国家巨大的机会宝库会资金不足。因此,我们来兑现这张支票--这张支票将给我们以宝贵的自由和正义的保障。

  我们来到这块圣地还为了提醒美国:现在正是万分紧急的时刻。现在不是从容不迫悠然行事或服用渐进主义镇静剂的时候。现在是实现民主诺言的时候。现在是走出幽暗荒凉的种族隔离深谷,踏上种族平等的阳关大道的时候。现在是使我们国家走出种族不平等的流沙,踏上充满手足之情的磐石的时候。现在是使上帝所有孩子真正享有公正的时候。

  忽视这一时刻的紧迫性,对于国家将会是致命的。自由平等的朗朗秋日不到来,黑人顺情合理哀怨的酷暑就不会过去。1963年不是一个结束,而是一个开端。如果国家依然我行我素,那些希望黑人只需出出气就会心满意足的人将大失所望。在黑人得到公民权之前,美国既不会安宁,也不会平静。反抗的旋风将继续震撼我们国家的基石,直至光辉灿烂的正义之日来临。

  但是,对于站在通向正义之宫艰险门槛上的人们,有一些话我必须要说。在我们争取合法地位的过程中,切不要错误行事导致犯罪。我们切不要吞饮仇恨辛酸的苦酒,来解除对于自由的饥渴。

  我们应该永远得体地、纪律严明地进行斗争。我们不能容许我们富有创造性的抗议沦为暴力行动。我们应该不断升华到用灵魂力量对付肉体力量的崇高境界。

  席卷黑人社会的新的奇迹般的战斗精神,不应导致我们对所有白人的不信任--因为许多白人兄弟已经认识到:他们的命运同我们的命运紧密相连,他们的自由同我们的自由休戚相关。他们今天来到这里参加集会就是明证。

  我们不能单独行动。当我们行动时,我们必须保证勇往直前。我们不能后退。有人问热心民权运动的人:“你们什么时候会感到满意?”只要黑人依然是不堪形容的警察暴行恐怖的牺牲品,我们就决不会满意。只要我们在旅途劳顿后,却被公路旁汽车游客旅社和城市旅馆拒之门外,我们就决不会满意。只要黑人的基本活动范围只限于从狭小的黑人居住区到较大的黑人居住区,我们就决不会满意。只要我们的孩子被“仅供白人”的牌子剥夺个性,损毁尊严,我们就决不会满意。只要密西西比州的黑人不能参加选举,纽约州的黑人认为他们与选举毫不相干,我们就决不会满意。不,不,我们不会满意,直至公正似水奔流,正义如泉喷涌。

  我并非没有注意到你们有些人历尽艰难困苦来到这里。你们有些人刚刚走出狭小的牢房。有些人来自因追求自由而遭受迫害风暴袭击和警察暴虐狂飙摧残的地区。你们饱经风霜,历尽苦难。继续努力吧,要相信:无辜受苦终得拯救。

  回到密西西比去吧;回到亚拉巴马去吧;回到南卡罗来纳去吧;回到佐治亚去吧;回到路易斯安那去吧;回到我们北方城市中的贫民窟和黑人居住区去吧。要知道,这种情况能够而且将会改变。我们切不要在绝望的深渊里沉沦。

  朋友们,今天我要对你们说,尽管眼下困难重重,但我依然怀有一个梦。这个梦深深植根于美国梦之中。

  我梦想有一天,这个国家将会奋起,实现其立国信条的真谛:“我们认为这些真理不言而喻:人人生而平等。”

  我梦想有一天,在佐治亚州的红色山岗上,昔日奴隶的儿子能够同昔日奴隶主的儿子同席而坐,亲如手足。

  我梦想有一天,甚至连密西西比州--一个非正义和压迫的热浪逼人的荒漠之州,也会改造成为自由和公正的青青绿州。

  我梦想有一天,我的四个小孩将生活在一个不是以皮肤的颜色,而是以品格的优劣作为评判标准的国家里。我今天有一个梦想。

  我梦想有一天,亚拉巴马州会有所改变--尽管该州州长现在仍滔滔不绝地说什么要对联邦法令提出异议和拒绝执行--在那里,黑人儿童能够和白人儿童兄弟姐妹般地携手并行。我今天有一个梦想。

  我梦想有一天,深谷弥合,高山夷平,歧路化坦途,曲径成通衢,上帝的光华再现,普天下生灵共谒。

  这是我们的希望。这是我将带回南方去的信念。有了这个信念,我们就能从绝望之山开采出希望之石。有了这个信念,我们就能把这个国家的嘈杂刺耳的争吵声,变为充满手足之情的悦耳交响曲。有了这个信念,我们就能一同工作,一同祈祷,一同斗争,一同入狱,一同维护自由,因为我们知道,我们终有一天会获得自由。

  到了这一天,上帝的所有孩子都能以新的含义高唱这首歌:“我的祖国,可爱的自由之邦,我为您歌唱。这是我祖先终老的地方,这是早期移民自豪的地方,让自由之声,响彻每一座山岗。”如果美国要成为伟大的国家,这一点必须实现。

  因此,让自由之声响彻新罕布什尔州的巍峨高峰!

  让自由之声响彻纽约州的崇山峻岭!

  让自由之声响彻宾夕法尼亚州的阿勒格尼高峰!

  让自由之声响彻科罗拉多州冰雪皑皑的洛基山!

  让自由之声响彻加利福尼亚州的婀娜群峰!

  不,不仅如此;让自由之声响彻佐治亚州的石山!

  让自由之声响彻田纳西州的望山!

  让自由之声响彻密西西比州的一座座山峰,一个个土丘!让自由之声响彻每一个山岗!

  当我们让自由之声轰响,当我们让自由之声响彻每一个大村小庄,每一个州府城镇,我们就能加速这一天的到来。那时,上帝的所有孩子,黑人和白人,犹太教徒和非犹太教徒,耶稣教徒和天主教徒,将能携手同唱那首古老的黑人灵歌:“终于自由了!终于自由了!感谢全能的上帝,我们终于自由了!”

  

毕业演讲

  每次毕业必将有一次演讲,有时还有好几次。这条约定俗成的法则意味着,毕业典礼上的演讲将在其他特殊场合演讲中占有一席之地。有时,演讲者是教职员工或是校管理者中的杰出一员。但政客、作家、娱乐人士和电视名人作为演讲者的越来越多。但无论是谁,演讲者都必须履行两个重要职能。第一,毕业演讲者要赞扬毕业班;第二,毕业演讲者要将毕业生引向未来。

  举例:毕业演讲

  

对卡罗林纳大学1996年毕业生的演讲

 

 珍尼特·瑞纳

  你们是国家的未来。我知道,你们精力充沛,言而有信,能够选择支持这个世界上的真和善。如果你们选择公共服务,你们选择的将是我们这个社会所能提供的最值得作出贡献和应当去做的职业之一。但是无论是经商、教学、起诉罪犯或是照顾家庭,你们都能取得不同的成功。

  下面的毕业演讲是1993年10月28日在西佛罗里达大学发表的。这篇演讲比较轻松易读(和易听),最重要的是,很短。对于那些饱受冗长毕业演讲之苦的人来说,简洁是最让人欣喜的了。这些演讲满是对毕业生们光明前途芜杂散漫的陈词滥调。相反,玛莎·桑得斯采用“三字语”的简单的方式给坐在她面前的毕业生们提出一些很朴素的建议。她用例子和故事来举例说明每一个“三字语”,使得它们很容易记忆。

  举例:毕业演讲

  

学会开启心智

  

玛莎·桑得斯在西佛罗里达大学的发言

  在传播科学学院,我们花费大量时间来思考和谈论词语--词语的意思、词语的说服力和词语的伦理暗示,总的来说,就是词语在人们之间以信息方式传递时的冲击力。因此,几个月前我特别被一篇讨论词语如何影响人的杂志文章所吸引。

  这篇文章认为,人们之间互相传递的最重要的信息通常表示为非常简单的短语。我希望这不要吓着你们,因为你们在过去的这些年中已经使得自己的思想充满了复杂的想法。这篇文章还认为,在我们的语言中最有影响力的信息大多数表现为“三字语”。

  我得承认,像“我爱你”,“没小费”或“最后吧”这样的“三字语”对我确实能激起极大的反应。因此,今天当我希望让你们铭记住这些高深的想法时,我决定与大家一起分享我生活这么多年来所发现的三个很有用的“三字语”。

  我所发现的生活中有用的第一个“三字语”是:我就来。你们想过这三个字能产生多大的慰藉吗?

  我就来。如果你曾经不得不在一个周末打电话给水管工人,你就会知道这些字感觉起来真的有多好。或是你在车抛锚时被困在了马路上时,你用最后的25美分打电话给一位朋友,你也能知道这些字有多么重要。想想这些字:“奶奶,我8月份就要毕业了。”我就来。

  “室友,我被困在办公室了,不能去机场接我姐姐。”我就来。

  “妈妈,婴儿哭一夜了,如果再没法睡觉的话,我会死的!”我就来。

  最近,我在与一位偶尔有个职位要聘用西佛罗伦萨毕业生的当地商人聊天时,她告诉我,作为一个应聘者,他要做的最重要的是不要去证明自己对企业的财富真诚关注。一个能够帮助向企业目标迈近的人,无论他是否是个“守望者”,都将是个有价值的人。换句话说,是一个关键时刻盼得到的人。

  那些知道如何说“在那儿”的人们的故事中,我喜欢之一的是关于伊莉莎白,英国女王的。1940年空袭之后有人问她小公主们(伊莉莎白和玛格里特·罗斯)是否会离开英国时,女王答道:“孩子们不会离开英国,除非我离开;我不会离开,除非她们的父亲离开;而国王无论在任何情况下都不会离开这个国家。”我就来。

  我想告诉大家的第二个“三字语”可能是非常非常难学会说的--我知道对我来说过去如此,现在有时仍如此。那就是:也许吧。想一下,如果人们都学会说“也许吧”,那么,办理离婚的律师们可要失业了,幸运的话,枪械商店也没了生意。我知道,使用它能在争论中给对手造成一种缴械的影响。事实上,我的一位律师朋友经常在他的最后陈述中使用它,他是一位非常成功的律师。也许吧。

  依我的经验,如果我们在行事时总是固执己见,不肯有一点儿妥协,那真的是对自己进行损害。让自己的生活容易一点,记住那句老话:“有一百种给猫剥皮的方法,也许每一种都对吧。”也许吧。

  我想介绍给大家的第三个“三字语”在我很小时就已经听了上千次。无论何时,当我面对重要决定时,我都会去问我的保姆该如何做。她的答复总是相同的“三字语”:“自个(儿)定”,而后就继续做她的事了。“这是什么意思?我需要建议,我要你告诉我该怎么做。”

  她只是笑,说:“自个(儿)定,真的,自个(儿)定。”

  但是,那时我是个傲慢的孩子,我把手放在屁股上,说:“可能吧,但我啥也不知道呀!”

  对此她的回答是:“开动脑筋。”要知道,生活不会以一种学位计划书的形式出现,没有伟大的智者来给你一份单子,告诉你:“做这些事,你将会赢得生活中的学位。”

  某种程度上,这一页现在是空白的,你可能对于要去的地方有个粗略的框架,但要相信我,如果不做一些困难的决定,你们不可能到达的,做决定向来不易。

  你可能发现了人们会建议你们应当如何做,但我一向认为,没有人愿意会为你的错误承担责任,你必须自己决定。

  今天我对你们的建议就是学会开启自己的心智。心理学家称之为按我们的潜意识办事。精神领袖们称之为“求助更高的力量”。无论称之为什么,你们每个人能给自己的生活找到正确的答案,这是一种能力。心智确实存在,它是个强有力的天赐礼物,它是世界上所有的教育和学位都无法给予你们的。你们将永远与之相伴,现在要做的是学会开启心智。

  乔治·摩尔在《树枝弯曲》中写道:“人生中一大难题是抉择。”

  好好做出抉择吧,毕业生们!

yutaowang 2004-04-05 01:18

谢谢,楼主

abc007 2005-10-06 08:24
谢谢,楼主

monroe 2005-10-27 02:50
谢谢

wsq6934 2007-06-23 15:55
This is one of the best oral English material that i have ever seen.Thank you very much.


查看完整版本: [-- 张翔:掌握英语口语--《特级口语教程》 --] [-- top --]



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